UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT    LOS  ANGELES 


FINAL  REPORT 


OF 


The  Educational  Commission 


TO 


The  Forty-Sixth  General  Assembly  of  the 
State  of  Illinois. 


fe*-^  <=(  /    ^  ^1^^   -m-^.tN, 


Submitted  in  Accordance  with  an  Act 
Approved  May  25,  1907. 


SPRINGFIELD.  ILLINOIS: 

Illinois  State  Jodrkal  Co.,'.Statk  Printers. 

1909. 


LB 


S       THE  ILLINOIS  EDUCATIONAL  COMMISSION. 

03 


r-i  Francis  G.  Blair,  Chairman. 

o     Ed.muxd  J.  James,  Edwix  G.  Cooley,* 

o 

R.  E.  HiERONYMUS,  A.  F.  Nightingale, 

Alfred  Bayliss,  Harry  Taylor. 

Ira  Woods  Howerth,  Secretary. 

a  'Resigned  Feb.   19,   1909. 


ii;^2i204 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Introflnction  1 

Bulletins  of  the  Commission 6 

Recommendations  of  the  Commission 9 

Revision  of  the  school  law 9 

Amendments 10 

Special  charters H 

The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction 15 

(Jualitications 16 

Election 16 

Term 17 

Salary 18 

The  State  Superin tendency  in  Illinois 18 

Powers  and  duties 22 

References 29 

The  State  Board  of  Education 31 

Term  of  office 32 

Compensation  33 

Membership 33 

Powers  and  duties 3l 

'I'he  Massachusetts  Board 34 

The  Connecticut  Board So 

The  New  York  Board 36 

The  California  Board 37 

The  West  Virginia  Board 38 

Boards  recently  recommended 38 

A  bill  for  an  Act  to  create  a  State  Board  of  Education  and  to  define  its  powers  and 

duties 10 

The  State  Board  and  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction 49 

Advantages  of  a  State  Board ; fiO 

Objections o2 

The  County  Superintendent 55 

Number  of  states  having  county  or  district  supervision 5i 

The  county  superin  tendency  in  Illinois 'iG 

Methods  of  election  ■>& 

Term  of  office 63 

Salaries 64 

Powers  and  duties 3 1 

Qualifications "9 

References 84 

Count >•  Boards  of  Eriucation 87 

Number  of  states  having  cop.nty  boards 87 

Membership  and  term  of  office 87 

Composition 87 

(.Jualitications  of  members  88 

Powers' and  duties f^S 

I'ypical  county  boards 93 

Advantages  of  a  county  board ~ 93 

References 96 

Units  of  School  Organization 98 

The  community  system 99 

Tlie  district  system  99 

Advantages  of  the  district  system 106 

The  townshir)  system 109 

Typical  township  systems 1*2 

The  county  svstem 114 

Township  Organization 11" 

Advantages  of  the  township  system 118 

Obiections  12i 

0[)  in  ions  of  experts  in  school  administration 129 

R  eferences 13} 

Township  ortranizatiini  of  schools  in  Illinois         137 

Discontinuance  and  abandonment  of  small  schools 145 

— B  E  C 


VI 

Table  of  Contents — Concluded. 

Page. 

The  Cert  Hi  cat  ion  of  Teachers 147 

Tlie  township  system  148 

Tlie  county  system , 148 

The  State  svstem 149 

The  power  to  grant,  renew,  suspend  and  revoke  certificates 158 

Recognition  of  normal  school,  college  and  university  graduates 15!) 

Uniform  examinations J63 

Experience  of  other  states  with  uniform  examinations 1(56 

Tlie  certiiication  of  teachers  it  Iowa  170 

The  cettitication  of  teachers  in  Illinois 174 

Fees  for  examinations 180 

Plan  of  certiiication  proposed  by  the  Commission 18t 

References 185 

County  Teachers'  Institutes  186 

Number  of  county  institutes  held  annually 186 

Time  at  which  county  institu.es  are  held 187 

Length  of  institutes 187 

Methods  of  securing  instruction 188 

Attendance 189 

Compensation  for  attendance 189 

Methods  of  supporting  county  institutes 189 

Typical  systems  of  organizing  and  conducting  institutes 199 

The  New  York  plan  199 

The  Pennsylvania  plan  202 

Tlie  Illinois  plan 203 

County  institutes  in  Illinois 204 

The  Purpose  and  Value  of  Count\'  Teachers'  Institutes 214 

Organizing  and  conducting  institutes 221 

Joint  institutes ; 224 

Time  of  holding  institutes 225 

Directors  of  i  nstitutes 226 

Duration  of  institutes 227 

Method  of  securing  instructors  and  the  character  of  the  instruction 227 

The  attendance  of  teachers -. 229 

Financial  support 230 

Institute  plan  proposed  by  the  Commission  232 

References 233 

Salaries  of  Teachers 2J5 

In  general 23fi 

In  Illinois 239 

The  cost  of  living  24J 

Wages  in  other  occupations 243 

Causes 244 

Kffects 244 

Remedies 245 

Minimum  Salary  Legislation 247 

In  the  United  States 247 

Objections 255 

Minimum  salaries  proposed  by  the  Commission  257 

References 258 

The  Restoration  of  the  Two  Mill  Tax 260 

Subjects  not  Thoroughly  Investigated  by  the  Commission 265 

Financial  statement 268 

Index 269 


FINAL  REPORT  OF  THE  EDUCATIONAL 
COMMISSION. 


Introduction. 


To  the  Honorable,  the  General  Assembly  of  the  State  of  Illinois: 

The  general  school  law  under  which  the  educational  system  of  Illinois 
is  now  operated  was  enacted  in  1855.  Three  years  afterwards  the  Super- 
intendent of  Public  Instruction  wrote  that  "It  conflicts  in  several  parts, 
while  other  portions  are  so  obscure  by  useless  verbiage  and  language 
wholly  unintelligible  to  the  ordinary  reader,  that  no  little  difficulty  has 
Ijeen  experienced  by  the  local  school  officers  throughout  the  State  in  com- 
prehending the  true  meaning  of  the  law,  and  ascertaining  their  several 
duties  enjoined  thereby."*  Such  was  the  condition  of  the  school  law 
in  1858.  Its  complexity,  verbiage  and  difficulty  of  construction  were 
increased  from  year  to  year  by  a  succession  of  amendments  and  addi- 
tional acts.  Accordingly  in  1873  the  need  of  simplifying  the  law  had 
become  so  pressing  that  the  entire  act  was  thoroughly  revised. 

From  1872  to  1889  the  new  body  of  school  law  grew  by  "external  and 
unsystematized  accretions"  until  its  condition  became  practically  the 
same  as  before.  Consequently  the  Thirty-fifth  General  Assembly  au- 
thorized another  revision,  which  was  made  under  the  direction  of  the 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  and  went  into  effect  May  21, 
1889.  Since  that  time  a  similar  process  of  growth  by  unorganized  ad- 
ditions of  amendments  to  the  law,  and  supplementary  acts,  has  taken 
place,  giving  occasion  once  more  for  complaints  on  account  of  its  ob- 
scurity, ambiguity  and  difficulty   of   interpretation. 

Naturally  the  first  normal  com])laint  was  issued  from  the  office  of  tlie 
State  Department  of  Education.  In  his  renort  of  190G  tlie  Superinten- 
dent of  Public  Instruction  declared  that  the  general  school  law  "has  be- 
come more  or  less  archaic,"  and  recommended,  "the  relief  of  the  con- 
gested condition  of  the  school  laws  in  the  form  of  a  comprehensive  re- 
vision by  a  competent  commission,  authorized  by  the  Ijcgislature,  ap- 
pointed by  the  Governor,  and  empowered  and  instructed  to  simplify  the 
present  general  provisions  by  re-arranging  them  so  that  all  dead  matter 
shall  be  cut  out,  all  ambiguous  language  be  made  clear,  and,  as  far  as 
possible,  all  provisions  relating  to  the  same  subject  be  brought  to- 
gether; also,  that  the  same  commission  be  authorized  to  point  out  lo  the 
Legislature  such  useful  provisions  in  the  special  laws  now  in  force  as 


♦Second  Biennial  Report,   Superintendent   of  Public  Instruction,    1857-8,   p.    12. 


might  well  be  iucornorated  iu  the  general  scliool  laws,  thus  operating 
as  an  indueenient  to  the  l^oklers  of  special  privileges  voluntarily  to  sur- 
render them."* 

This  recoininendatiou  was  a))proved  b}'  various  organizations  among 
which  were  tiie  women's  clubs  of  the  State.  The  South  Side  League  of 
Parents'  Chibs  of  Chicago,  for  instance,  sent  out  a  circular  letter  to 
presidents  of  teachers'  associations  and  to  the  educational  departments 
of  women's  clubs  requesting  them  to  t;ooperate  in  interesting  the  people 
of  their  community  in  petitioning  the  Governor  of  the  State  '"'to  recom- 
mend to  tiie  next  Legislature  the  appointment  of  an  educational  com- 
mission to  revise  and  codify  the  laws  governing  the  public  schools." 

When  the  State  Teachers'  Association  assembled  in  Springfield,  Illi- 
nois, on  December  2G,  1906,  the  Governor  of  the  State,  Honorable 
Charles  S.  Deneen,  opened  the  proceedings  with  an  address  in  which  he 
urged  the  association  to  adopt  resolutions  requesting  the  General  As- 
sembly to  appoint  a  commission  to  codify  the  school  law  which,  he  said, 
had  "become  so  cumbersome  and  contradictory  in  its  provisions  that  no 
lawyer,  not  to  say  layman,  pretends  to  know  and  understand  it."  He 
said  that  he  liad  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  matter  should  be  investi- 
gated by  a  competent  commission  to  be  appointed  by  the  General  As- 
sembly; that  he  believed  that  the  Legislature  would  appoint  such  a  com- 
mission, which  should  be  given  two  years  to  inquire  into  the  subject 
carefully  and  then  recommend  necessary  changes,  and  that  he  believed 
the  Legislature  would  make  any  necessary  appropriation  for  carrying  on 
such  an  investigation  and  that  the  people  of  the  State  would  approve 
of  the  appointment  of  such  a  commission  which  would  be  able  to  give 
matured  views  on  the  subject  of  investio-ation.* 

In  an  address  delivered  before  the  Association  on  the  following  day, 
the  retiring  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Honorable  Alfred 
Bayliss,  said,  "No  specific  additions  to  our  overloaded  school  statutes,  at 
this  time,  could  be  as  serviceable  as  the  intelligent  elimination  of  super- 
fluous, incongruous,  absurd  and  archaic  nortions,  the  simplification  and 
orderly  arrangement  of  the  remainder,  and,  perhaps,  the  repeal  of  all 
surviving  special  privileges  by  extending  those  which  have  value  to  all 
alike.  That  done,  a  very  few  new  provisions  would  suffice  to  take  the 
question  of  more  law  out  of  this  council  for  years  to  come,  thereby  in- 
creasing our  time  to  consider  how  best  to  obey  the  letter  and  fulfil  the 
spirit  of  the  essentials." 

Immediately  following  the  address  in  which  this  statement  was  made 
the  incoming  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Honorable  F.  G. 
Blair,  in  speaking  on  the  "Educational  Outlook,"  expressed  the  follow- 
ing sentiments:  "Now,  if,  as  I  have  hinted,  there  is  some  confusion 
in  educational  tiiouglit  today,  if  there  are  confiicting  aims  and  ideals, 
if  there  is  over-lapping  and  waste  in  the  work  of  the  educational  system" 
what  are  some  of  the  influences  which  promise  to  make  matters  iDetter? 


•Twenty-sixth  Biennial  Report,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  IlHnoIs, 
p.    29. 

•Journal  of  Proceedings,  Fifty-third  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Illinois  State 
Teachers'   Association,   Springfield,   Illinois,   December   26-28,    1906,   p.   9. 


First,  one  of  the  most  hopeful  and  promising  educational  signs  of  the 
time  is  the  announcement  made  by  Governor  Deneen  that  at  the  next 
session  of  the  Legislature,  it  will,  in  all  probability,  provide  for  the  ap- 
pointment by  the  Governor,  of  an  educational  commission,  whose  duty 
it  shall  be  to  study  the  system  of  education  in  Illinois,  and  the  laws 
under  which  this  system  operates,  and  to  compare  its  form  and  its  work- 
ings with  other  states  and  other  countries,  and  from  such  study  and 
comparison  to  formulate  a  new  code  of  laws  and  to  suggest  such  modifi- 
cations of  the  present  system  as  may  seem  wise  to  them.  I  believe  that 
such  a  commission  has  a  large  opportunity,  and  I  believe  that  if  this 
opportunity  is  used  as  it  may  be  used,  great  good  will  come  to  the  cause 
of  education  in  the  State  of  Illinois."' 

When  the  report  of  the  Le.2:islative  Committee  annointed  by  the  State 
Teachers'  x\ssociation  was  read,  it  was  found  to  include  the  following 
statement :  "We  recommend  to  the  State  Teachers'  Association  that  the 
General  Assembly  be  petitioned  to  adopt  a  joint  resolution  authorizing 
the  appointment  by  the  Governor  of  a  commission  to  examine  carefully 
into  needed  changes  in  our  present  school  laws  and  to  report  to  the 
Forty-sixth  General  Assembly  a  liill  for  the  comprehensive  revision  of 
the  same." 

When  on  December  28th,  the  Committee  on  Resolutions  presented  its 
report,  the  first  declaration  was  as  follows : 

"Whereas,  The  statute  known  as  the  general  school  law  of  Illinois,  to- 
gether with  the  numerous  additional  and  supplemental  acts,  and  so-called 
special  charters,  form  a  body  of  law  which  is  often  obscure,  sometimes  contra- 
dictory, and  much  of  it,  obsolete,  or  no  longer  effective;   and. 

Whereas,  In  many  ways  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  our  plan  of  school 
organization  itself  may  thereby  be  greatly  improved;   therefore, 

Resolved,  That  we  request  the  Governor  of  Illinois  to  make  effective  his 
very  practical  and  businesslike  suggestion  that  the  Forty-fifth  General  As- 
sembly be  requested  to  authorize  the  appointment  of  a  commission  to  visit 
the  best  schools,  and  study  the  public  school  system  of  this  and  other 
countries  for  the  purpose  of  gathering  and  reporting  to  the  Forty-sixth 
General  Assembly  all  the  data  necessary  for  an  intelligent  reorganization 
of  the  entire  public  school  system,  which  shall  result  in  placing  it  on  the 
plane  of  the  best  in  the  world  for  simplicity,  adaptation  and  efficiency ;  and, 
be  it  further 

Resolved,  That  we  submit  this  unreserved  indorsement  of  the  Executive's 
views,  as  expressed  to  this  association  Wednesday  evening,  December  26, 
1906,  and  this  request,  in  lieu  of  any  and  all  other  recommendations  or  re- 
quests for  new  school  legislation  which  this  association  might  otherwise 
have  wished  to  make  at  this  time,  believing  that  such  a  procedure  not  only 
is  the  sane,  but  more  expeditious  mode  of  procedure  at  this  time." 

This  resolution  was  unanimously  adonted  bv  the  association. 

The  necessity  of  an  educational  commission  to  revise  and  codify  the 
school  law  and  suggest  improvements  of  the  school  system  was  further 
emphasized  by  the  Governor  of  the  State  in  his  biennial  message  to  the 
Forty-fifth  General  Assembly  presented  on  January  9,  1907.  In  this 
message  he  said  :  "Fifty  years  ago  our  school  system  fairly  representetl 
the  best  educational  thought.  To  this  has  l)een  added  a  mass  of  ill- 
considered,  incoherent  and  occasionally  obscure  amendments,  so  that 
the  school  laws  of  Illinois  now  include  the  General  School  Law  con- 
taining 301  sections,  thirty-seven  special  charters,  eight  supplemental 


acts  and  twentv-one  adtlitional  acts.  ]\Ioreover,  there  are  more  than 
400  court  decisions  constniin>i  these  statutes.  It  is  manifest  that  such 
a  condition  of  our  school  hiws,  calls  for  a  general  revision  of  the  system. 
We  have  all  the  parts  of  a  complete  school  system  fairly  well  developed, 
l)ut  there  is  no  coherence  or  symmetry.  Before  a  general  revision  of  the 
school  law  is  undertaken,  however,  I  believe  that  a  commission  should 
be  appointed  to  study  other  school  systems,  comparing  ours  with  the 
best  in  this  country  and  elsewhere,  so  that  the  best  information  may  be 
secured  as  to  all  classes  of  schools,  country,  town,  primary,  intermed- 
iate, high  school  and  normal,  and  to  frame  and  submit  to  the  next 
General  Assembly  laws  to  imify  our  school  system  and  bring  our  public 
schools  up  to  the  highest  standard  of  efficiency.  It  will  not  require  a 
large  appropriation  to  accomijlish  this  work.  I  recommend  such  an  ap- 
propriation as  will  enable  a  commission  to  nerform  the  work  outlined."^ 
Accordingly  a  committee  of  the  State  Teachers'  Association  drafted 
the  following  bill  to  provide  for  an  educational  commission,  which  bill 
was  introduced  in  the  House  by  Eepresentative  Coyle  and  in  the  Senate 
by  Senator  Pemberton: 

Ax  Act  to  create  an  educational  commission,  to  define  its  powers  and  duties,, 
and  to  make  a)i  appropriation  therefor. 

Sectiox  1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  People  of  the  State  of  Illinois,  repre- 
sented in  the  General  Assembly:  That  a  commission  of  seven  members  be, 
and  is  hereby  created,  to  be  known  as  the  Educational  Commission,  to  be 
constituted  and  appointed  as  hereinafter  provided. 

Sec.  2.  Upon  the  passage  and  approval  of  this  Act,  the  Governor  shall 
nominate,  and  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  appoint 
six  persons  representing  the  various  phases  of  educational  work  within  the 
State,  who,  together  with  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  shall 
constitute  the  commission.  The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  shall 
be  ex  officio  chairman  of  the  commission.  All  vacancies  that  may  occur 
by  resignation  or  otherwise  shall  be  filled  by  the  Governor. 

Sec.  3.  The  commission  shall  meet  at  the  call  of  the  chairman  and  elect 
a  secretary,  and  shall  cause  a  record  to  be  made  and  kept  of  all  its  pro- 
ceedings. Four  members  shall  constitute  a  quorum  for  the  transaction  of 
business. 

Sec.  4.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Educational  Commission  to  make  a 
thorough  investigation  of  the  common  school  system  of  Illinois,  and  the 
laws  under  which  it  is  organized  and  operated:  To  make  a  comparative 
study  of  such  other  school  systems  as  may  seem  advisable  and  to  submit 
to  the  Forty-sixth  General  Assembly  a  report  including  such  suggestions, 
recommendations,  revisions,  additions,  corrections  and  amendments  as  the 
commission  shall  deem  necessary. 

Sec.  5.  The  public  printer  is  hereby  authorized  and  directed  to  do  all 
printing  necessary  for  the  Educational  Commission. 

Sec.  0.  The  members  of  the  commission  shall  receive  only  their  actual 
personal  and  traveling  expenses,  to  be  paid  upon  the  presentation  of  item- 
ized statements  of  such  accounts,  verified  by  affidavits,  and  approved  by  the 
Governor:  Provided,  hotcever,  that  the  secretary  may  receive  fair  compensa- 
tion for  the  time  actually  spent  in  the  work  of  the  commission,  such  com- 
pensation to  be  determined  by  the  commission  and  approved  by  the  Governor. 

Sec.  7.  The  sum  of  $10,000.00  is  hereby  appropriated  for  postage,  station- 
ery, clerical  and  expert  service,  incidental  and  traveling  expenses  of  the 
commission,  and  the  Auditor  of  Public  Accounts  is  hereby  authorized  to 
draw  his  warrant  for  the  foregoing  amount  or  any  part  thereof,  on  the  order 
of  the  Educational  Commission,  signed  by  its  chairman,  attested  by  its 
secretary,  and  approved  by  the  Governor. 


The  Legislative  Committee  of  the  State  Teachers'  Association  and 
the  Legislative  Committee  of  the  County  Superintendents'  Association 
came  to  Springfield  and  assisted  in  securing  the  passage  of  the  measure. 
It  finally  passed  hoth  houses  and  was  approved  by  Governor  Deneen  on 
May  25,  1907.  Upon  its  approval  one  of  the  ablest  and  best  informed 
school  men  of  Illinois  said :  "That  is  the  best  piece  of  school  legislation 
that  has  been  enacted  in  a  quarter  of  a  century." 

The  Educational  Commission  thus  demanded  and  thus  provided  for 
was  appointed  on  September  37,  1907.  In  its  appointment  ,the  Governor 
sought  to  obtain  representative  men  of  the  various  educational  interests 
and  the  diiferent  localities  of  the  State.  The  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction,  Honorable  F.  G.  Blair,  was  made  chairman  of  the  com- 
mission by  a  provision  in  the  bill  creating  it.  Edmund  J.  James,  Pres- 
ident of  the  University  of  Illinois,  was  named  as  the  representative  of 
the  StaJte  Universitv  and  of  the  eastern  district.  Mr.  R.  E.  Hierony- 
mus,  President  of  Eureka  College  and  also  the  president  of  the  State 
organization  of  non-state  colleges  and  universities,  was  appointed  as 
the  representative  of  these  institutions  and  of  the  north  central  portion 
of  the  State.  Mr.  Alfred  Bayliss,  Principal  of  the  Western  Illinois  State 
Normal  School,  was  appointed  as  the  representative  of  the  normal 
schools  and  of  the  western  section  of  .the  State.  Mr.  Edwin  G.  Cooley, 
Superintendent  of  the  Chicago  public  schools,  was  made  the  representa- 
tive of  city  superintendents  and  Mr.  A.  F.  Nightingale,  County  Super- 
intendent of  Cook  county,  of  the  county  superintendents.  These  two 
gentlemen  represented  also  the  northern  section  of  the  State.  As  a 
representative  of  the  southern  section  and  also  of  the  public  high 
schools,  Mr.  Harry  Taylor,  Princinal  of  the  Harrisburg  Township  High 
School,  was  selected. 

The  commission,  as  thus  constituted,  met  in  Springfield,  Illinois,  on 
December  27,  1907,  and  elected  Ira  Woods  Howerth  of  the  University 
of  Chicago,  secretary  of  the  commission  at  a  salary  of  $4,000.00  a  year. 
The  headquarters  and  office  of  the  commission  were  established  in  the 
main  room  of  the  office  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  in 
Springfield,  Illinois.  Twelve  other  meetings  of  the  commission,  each 
lasting  from  one  to  four  days,  have  been  held.  The  minutes  of  these 
meetings  are  on  file  in  the  office  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction of  Illinois  where  they  may  be  consulted  by  anyone  who,  for 
any  reason,  may  desire  to  do  so. 

At  the  first  meeting  of  the  commission  the  work  to  be  undertaken  was 
thoroughly  discussed.  It  was  decided  to  undei-take  first  a  thorough  re- 
vision, condensation,  simplification  and  codification  of  the  general  school 
law.  Later  it  was  determined  that  through  the  secretary  of  the  com- 
mission a  thorough  investigation  of  the  school  laws  and  school  systems  of 
other  states  should  be  made  as  a  preliminary  to  recommendations  in  re- 
gard to  improving  the  school  system  of  Illinois,  and  that  these  investi- 
gations should  be  embodied  in  a  series  of  bulletins. 


BlLLKTIXS    OF    THE    COMMISSION. 

One  of  the  duties  required  of  the  commission  was  "to  make  a  com- 
parative study  of  such  other  school  systems  as  may  seem  advisable.'* 
This  was  thought  by  the  commission  to  be  a  necessary  preliminary  to 
the  formulation  of  any  recommendation  in  regard  to  the  improvement 
of  the  school  system  of  Illinois.  The  subjects  taken  up  first  made  neces- 
sary a  study  of  the  school  systems  of  the  various  states  and  an  investi- 
gation of  the  methods  of  administering  these  systems.  This  study  and 
investigation  were  carried  on  as  thoroughly  as  the  time  at  the  disposal  of 
the  commission  would  permit.  The  results  are  contained  in  a  series  of 
bulletins  is*;ued  by  the  commission  for  the  purpose  primarily  of  ac- 
quainting the  people  of  the  State  with  the  recommendations  of  the 
commission  in  their  tentative  form  and  the  facts  and  conditions  upon 
which  these  recommendations  were  based.  These  bulletins  are  nine  in 
number,  including  the  preliminary  report  of  the  commission,  and  are 
entitled,  respectively,  and  in  the  order  of  their  publication,  as  follows: 
A  Tentative  Plan  for  a  State  Board  of  Education,  a  Tentative  Plan  for 
a  County  Board  of  Education,  a  Tentative  Plan  for  the  Certification  of 
Teachers,  a  Tentative  Plan  for  Making  the  Township  the  Unit  of  School 
Organization,  Tentative  Eecommendations  Concerning  County  Teachers 
Institutes,  the  General  School  Law  as  Eevised,  Simplified,  Condensed  and 
Codified,  Tentative  Eecommendations  in  Eegard  to  Minimum  Salaries  for 
Teachers,  Bills  Providing  for  a  State  Board  of  Education,  the  Certifica- 
tion of  Teachers,  and  Township  Organization  of  Eural  Schools,  with  aa 
Introductory  Statement,  and  the  Preliminar}^  Eeport  of  the  Educational 
Commission  to  the  General  Assembly  of  the  State  of  Illinois.  Of  these 
bulletins,  G9,500  copies  have  been  printed,  and  distributed  chiefly,  of 
course,  within  the  State.  They  have  been  widely  quoted  and  commented 
upon  outside  the  State,  however,  sometimes  in  part  republished,  and  have 
been  demanded  in  quantities  in  at  least  a  dozen  of  the  states  for  the 
purpose  of  influencing  legislation. 

Bulletin  Xo.  1  contains  the  tentative  plan  of  the  commission  'to  pro- 
vide for  the  creation  of  a  State  Board  of  Education,  the  number  of 
members,  method  of  appointment,  and  term  of  office,  with  the  powers 
and  duties  that  should  be  prescribed  for  it,  and  an  exposition  of  the  facts 
regarding  the  thirty-three  state  boards  of  education  now  in  existence, 
from  the  study  of  which  facts  the  plan  of  the  commission  was  formu- 
lated. This  tentative  plan  was  based  upon  the  careful  consideration  of 
the  educational  needs  of  Illinois  and  upon  the  thorough  examination 
of  the  composition,  powers  and  duties  of  the  various  state  boards  of 
education  and  the  educational  advantages  which  have  been  derived  from 
the  operation  of  the  boards  in  the  various  states. 

Bulletin  Xo.  2  contains  the  results  of  a  study  of  county  boards  of 
education  in  the  twenty-nine  states  which  have  adopted  some  form  of  an 
educational  county  board.  It  includes  also  a  tentative  recommendation 
for  the  creation  of  such  a  board  in  Illinois.  Following  the  study  of 
county  boards  will  be  found  the  results  of  an  investigation  of  the  county 
superintendency  in  the  thirty-nine  states  and  two  territories  whicli  have- 


provided  for  countv  scliool  supervision  and  tentative  recommendations 
in  regard  to  the  qualifications,  salaries  and  methods  of  electing  county 
superintendents  with  a  suggestion  in  regard  to  the  number  of  assistants 
which  should  be  provided  to  assist  the  county  superintendent  in  the 
performance  of  the  duties  of  his  office. 

Bulletin  JSTo.  3  is  devoted  to  the  consideration  of  a  tentative  plan  for 
the  certification  of  teachers,  which  plan  involves  the  following  general 
propositions :  First,  that  the  power  to  issue,  renew,  suspend  and  revoke 
certificates  shall  be  lodged  in  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction 
and  the  countv  superintendent  of  schools;  second,  that  examinations 
shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  State  and  that  the  examination  questions 
shall  be  prepared  and  the  papers  graded  under  the  direction  of  the  State 
Board  of  Education ;  and  that  the  fees  for  examinations  and  renewals  of 
certificates  shall  be  abolished  and  that  all  expenses  of  such  examinations 
shall  be  paid  by  the  State.  The  advantages  of  a  State  uniform  examin- 
ation system  over  our  present  county  system,  and  the  successful  exper- 
ience of  fifteen  states  in  operating  a  state  system  of  examinations  are 
set  forth. 

Bulletin  Xo.  4  is  in  the  nature  of  a  discussion  of  the  various  units  of 
school  organization,  the  district,  the  town  or  townsliir>  and  the  county, 
with  the  reasons  for  and  against  the  adoption  of  the  to^Tiship  system. 
The  organization  for  the  pur]30se  of  administerin'^  the  school  system  in 
the  different  units  of  organization  is  also  described  and  set  forth  in 
tabular  form. 

Bulletin  No.  5  mav  be  described  as  a  studv  of  the  county  teachers'  in- 
stitutes of  the  United  States,  and  esnecially  of  Illinois,  with  respect  to 
their  number,  the  times  at  which  they  are  held,  their  duration,  the 
various  methods  of  securing  instruction,  the  practice  with  respect  to 
compensating  teachers  for  attendance  and  the  methods  of  supporttng 
such  institutes.  The  tentative  recommendations  of  the  commission, 
based  upon  this  study  and  included  in  the  bulletin,  are  with  respect  to 
organizing  and  conducting  institutes,  the  employment  of  a  director  of 
institutes,  the  time  of  holding  such  meetings  for  the  instruction  and  in- 
spiration of  teachers  and  their  duration,  the  feasibility  of  arranging  for 
joint  institutes,  the  compulsory  attendance  of  teachers  and  the  support 
of  institutes  by  the  State. 

Bulletin  Xo.  6  is  t^ie  revised,  simplified,  condensed  and  codified  school 
law,  with  an  introductory  statement  in  regard  to  the  method  and  results 
of  the  revision.  Originally  the  law  contained  301  sections,  thirty-seven 
special  charters,  eight  supplemental  acts  and  twenty-one  additional  acts. 
In  the  revision  the  number  of  sections  is  reduced  from  397  to  280.  By 
the  elimination  of  superfluous  sections,  paragraphs,  sentences,  phrafes 
and  words,  the  number  of  pages  of  the  law  were  reduced  from  118  to  68, 
a  condensation  of  more  than  one-third. 

Bulletin  Xo.  7  is  a  study  of  the  wages  of  teachers  in  Illinois  and  the 
other  states  of  the  Fnion,  of  the  minimum  salary  legislation  in  the  eight 
states  which  have  adopted  such  legislation,  and  in  foreign  countries^ 
with  the  recommendations  of  the  commission   in   regard   to  the  length 


8 

of  the  school  term,  the  luiniiuum  salaries  which  should  be  paid  to 
teachers  and  a  discussion  of  the  advantages  of  and  the  objections  to 
mininium  salary  legislation. 

In  Bulletin  Xo.  8  may  be  found  in  full  the  following  bills:  A  bill 
to  provide  for  a  State  Board  of  Education  and  to  define  its  powers  and 
duties,  a  bill  to  provide  for  the  certification  of  teachers  and  a  bill  for  an 
act  to  enable  the  districts  of  any  township  in  the  State,  no  one  of  which 
districts  shall  contain  an  incorporated  village  or  city,  to  vest  the  control 
and  management  of  their  schools  in  a  single  board  of  directors. 

Bulletin  No.  9  is  the  preliminary  report  of  the  commission  to  the 
Forty-sixth  General  Assembly  of  the  State  of  Illinois.  It  includes  a 
brief  description  of  the  work  of  the  commission,  a  statement  with  re- 
spect to  each  of  its  final  recommendations,  including  the  recommenda- 
tions themselves  with  some  of  the  reasons  why  they  have  been  proposed. 

The  publication  by  the  commission,  in  this  series  of  bulletins,  of  its 
tentative  recommendations  has  not  only  kept  the  people  of  the  State  in- 
formed with  respect  to  the  work  of  the  commission,  but  has  also  called 
forth  both  friendly  suggestions  and  adverse  criticisms  which  have  en- 
abled it  to  improve  these  recommendations  before  presentation  in  their 
final  form,  and  these  were  the  main  objects  of  publishing  such  bulletins. 


RECOMMENDATIONS  OF  THE  COMMISSION. 


The  commission  is  required  by  law  to  submit  to  your  honorable  body 
''a  report  including  such  suggestions,  recommendations,  revisions,  addi- 
tions, corrections  and  amendments  as  the  commission  shall  deem  neces- 
sary." In  formulating  the  recommendations  to  be  presented  the  com- 
mission has  had  under  consideration,  first,  the  school  law,  and  second, 
the  school  system. 

Revision  of  the  School  Law. 

The  school  law  under  which  the  educational  system  of  Illinois  is 
operated  has  grown  largely  by  accretion  and  is  consequently  incoherent 
and  in  many  respects  defective  and  cumbersome.  It  has  been  so  declared 
again  and  again  by  those  who  have  been  required  to  administer  it.  It  is 
often  obscure,  sometimes  ambiguous,  sometimes  contradictory.  Some 
sections  are  exact  duplicates  of  other  sections,  some  are  inoperative,  some 
have  been  repealed  by  subsequent  legislation,  but  still  encumber  the 
pages  of  the  statutes.  The  whole  body  of  the  school  law  has  consequently 
long  needed,  revision  and  codification,  and  such  revision  and  codification 
was  one  of  the  duties  required  of  the  commission. 

In  the  performance  of  this  duty  the  commission  has  devoted  much 
time  and  the  most  careful  attention.  How  much  time  and  attention 
have  been  given  to  this  part  of  the  work  of  the  commission  will  not  be 
realized  unless  it  is  remembered  that  every  sentence  and  phrase  of  the 
law  have  undergone  a  critical  examination.  The  commission  has  en- 
deavored by  every  legitimate  method  of  simplification  and  condensation 
to  produce  a  code  logically  and  conveniently  arranged,  simple  in  ex- 
pression and  lucid  in  meaning,  a  code  which  school  officere  and  the 
people  generally  may  without  difficulty  read  and  understand.  The  result 
of  its  labors  will  be  found  in  Bulletin  No.  6  as  the  draft  of  "a  bill  for  an 
Act  to  establish  and  maintain  a  system  of  free  schools." 

This  bill  includes  the  entire  "Act  to  establish  and  maintain  a  system 
of  free  schools,"  approved  May  21,  1889,  and  known  a.s  the  general 
school  law,  also  twenty  additional  acts  and  amendments,  tlie  whole  orig- 
inally containing  397  sections. 

In  the  revision  all  sections  which  consist  merely  of  a  restatement  of 
some  part  of  the  Constitution  of  the  State  or  of  the  general  statutes  have 
been  omitted,  also  all  sections  that  were  merely  duplicates  in  expression  or 
meaning  of  other  sections,  all  sections  that  have  been  repealed  directly 


10 

bv  subsequent,  legislation,  all  sections  that  have  become  obsolete  or  wholly 
inoperative,  and  all  sections  plainly  inconsistent  with  other  sections 
more  recently  enacted.  By  thus  eliminating  useless  sections,  and  by 
combining  sections  which  logically  belong  together,  the  commission  was 
able  to  drop  out  of  the  law  117  sections  without  the  least  change  of  its 
meaning.  By  striking  out  superfluous  words,  phrases  and  sentences, 
of  which  there  were  many,  the  bulk  of  the  law  was  further  reduced. 
With  all  the  changes  incident  to  the  revision,  however,  no  alteration  was 
made  in  the  purport  of  the  law.  Tbe  bill  contains  no  new  matter.  It 
is  simply  a  restatement  of  the  existing  law.  It  will  hardly  be  denied 
that  as  such  it  is  far  superior  to  the  form  in  which  the  school  law  is  now 
expressed.  The  commission,  therefore,  respectfully  recommends  the 
substitution  of  the  revised,  simplified,  condensed  and  codified  form  of 
the  law  as  contained  in  Bulletin  No.  6,  and  later  introduced  in  the 
General  Assembly  as  Senate  Bill  No.  96,  for  the  general  school  laws  as 
they  now  exist. 

Amendments. 

The  most  important  recommendations  of  the  commission,  as  implied 
by  suggested  amendments  to  the  revised  general  school  law,  are  the 
following : 

1.  To  provide  a  uniform  system  of  bookkeeping  by  the  township  treas- 
urers of  the  State,  and  to  secure  promptness  in  the  Inspection  and  auditing 
of  their  accounts. 

2.  That  the  minimum  length  of  the  school  term  be  extended  from  sir 
months  to  seven  months. 

3.  That  the  school  month  shall  consist  of  four  weeks  of  five  days  each 
instead  of  the  calendar  month. 

4.  That  no  person  be  employed  to  teach  in  the  public  schools  of  the  State 
who  is  not  at  least  eighteen  years  of  age. 

5.  That  no  person  be  employed  to  teach  who  does  not  hold,  at  the  time 
of  his  employment,  a  certificate  of  qualifications  covering  the  entire  time 
for  which  he  is  employed. 

6.  That  every  teacher  must  keep,  in  addition  to  the  daily  register,  a 
classification  register  which  shall  exhibit  the  name,  age  and  attendance  of 
each  pupil,  the  day  of  the  week,  the  month  and  the  year  and  shall  show  the 
exact  standing  in  the  course  of  study  of  each  pupil. 

7.  That  a  board  of  education  in  cities  containing  a  population  of  less 
than  100,000  inhabitants  may  dismiss  a  teacher  only  for  cause,  upon  writ- 
ten charges,  and  after  a  hearing  before  the  board  of  education. 

8.  That  boards  of  education  may  employ  a  superintendent  for  periods  of 
four  years,  instead  of  one  year,  after  a  probationary  period  of  two  years. 

9.  That  boards  of  education  in  school  districts  having  a  population  of  not 
fewer  than  1,000  and  not  more  than  100,000  inhabitants,  and  not  governed 
by  special  charters,  shall  be  limited  to  a  president  and  six  members. 

10.  That  boards  of  education  in  cities  having  a  population  of  more  than 
10,000  inhabitants  shall  be  authorized  to  purchase  or  locate  a  school  house 
site,  or  to  purchase,  build  or  move  a  school  house  without  authorization  by  a 
majority  vote  of  the  district. 

11.  That  boards  of  school  directors  be  authorized  to  apportion  funds  for 
the  purchase  of  libraries  and  apparatus  •"iien  they  are  needed,  and  not  be 
limited  as  they  now  are  to  such  purchase  "after  provision  has  been  made 
for  the  payment  of  all  necessary  school  expenses." 

12.  That  the  actual  traveling  expenses  of  county  superintendents  in- 
curred in  the  supervision  of  schools  be  paid  by  the  county  hoard. 


11 

13.  That  the  law  be  so  amended  as  to  provide  unequivocally  for  free 
high  school  privileges  to  pupils  residing  in  a  district  in  which  no  high 
school  has  been  established. 

14.  That  the  phrase  "until  otherwise  provided  by  law"  be  stricken  from 
the  section  of  the  law  providing  for  a  two  mill  tax  upon  the  equalized  as- 
sessed value  of  all  the  property  of  the  State  for  school  purposes  so  that  the 
two  mill  tax  levied  for  such  purposes  from  1855  to  1873  be  restored,  thus 
increasing  the  State  appropriation  for  schools  from  $1,000,000  to  approxi- 
mately $2,500,000. 

Some  of  the  amendments  to  the  law  are  made  necessary  of  course 
by  the  larger  recommendations  of  the  commission  which  involve  material 
changes  eitlier  in  the  organization  or  the  administration  of  the  school 
system.  These  larger  amendments  are  embodied  in  the  following  bills 
drafted  by  the  commission  and  introduced  in  the   Clenoral  Assembly: 

1.  A  bill  to  provide  for  the  creation  of  a  State  Board  of  Education  and  to 
define  its  powers  and  duties. 

2.  A  bill  to  provide  for  a  uniform  system  of  examining  applicants  for 
teachers'  certificates. 

3.  A  bill  to  enable  the  districts  of  any  township  in  the  State,  no  one  of 
which  districts  shall  contain  an  incorporated  village  or  city,  to  vest  the  con- 
trol and  management  of  their  schools  in  a  single  board  of  directors. 

4.  A  bill  to  provide  for  an  increase  in  the  salaries  of  county  superinten- 
dents. 

5.  A  bill  to  provide  for  organizing  and  conducting  county  teachers'  insti- 
tutes. 

All  of  these  recommendations  were  presented  in  the  preliminary  re- 
port of  the  commission. 

Special  Charters. 

The  commission  respectfully  recommends  that  the  general  school  law 
be  so  improved  by  amendment  that  an  inducement  will  be  offered  to 
cities  operating  their  schools  under  special  charters  to  surrender  the 
same  and  organize  under  the  provisions  of  the  general  school  law.  The 
reasons  for  this  may  here  be  briefly  set  forth. 

At  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  ithe  Constitution  of  1870,  which  pro- 
hibited further  special  legislation  relating  to  the  management  of  .common 
schools,  there  were  seventy-three  school  districts  existing  by  virtue  of 
special  charters.  This  number  does  not  include  the  district  of  the 
Princeton  Township  High  School  which  was  also  created  by  a  special 
act. 

Since  that  time  the  special  charters  of  thirty-eight  of  these  districts 
have  been  abrogated,  thus  bringin"-  the  schools  of  the  following  districts, 
most  of  which  contain  cities,  under  tlie  o])eration  of  the  general  law: 
Abingdon,  Augusta,  Aurora,  Bardol])h,  Bourl)on,  Bushnell,  Caledonia, 
Carthage,  Centralia.  Chicago,  Danville,  Davis,  P^lgin.  Evanston,  Fair- 
bury,  Freeport,  Glencoe,  Harristown,  Henry,  Hliopolis.  LaSalle,  Lee 
Center,  Lincoln,  Lockport,  Marion,  Mason,  Monmouth,  Xaper\alle,  01- 
nev,  Oneida,  Ottawa,  Pittsfield.  Quincy,  Urbana,  Vandalia,  Waterloo, 
Winnetka,  Wilmington. 


12 

There  are  still  in  existence,  however,  thirty-five  special  charter  dis- 
tricts. The  schools  of  these  districts  are  operated  under  different  kinds 
of  special  charters  together  with  supplemental  acts  which,  though  general 
in  form,  are  si)ecial  in  application.  These  charters  and  acts  greatly  in- 
crease the  bulk  of  the  scliool  law.  Indeed,  they  constitute  a  body  of 
legislation  greater  than  the  general  school  law  itself.  Of  course  a  special 
charter  with  its  supplementary  acts  is  of  interest  only  to  the  people  im- 
mediately concerned.  But  the  entire  body  of  this  legislation  must  be 
printed  and  generally  distributed  although  it  is  not  of  general  interest. 
Each  year  something  is  added,  thus  increasing-  the  complexity  of  the  law, 
its  volume  and  the  cost  of -legislation. 

The  charters  of  the  thirty-five  districts  now  operating  under  special 
Acts  are  in  many  of  their  provisions  practically  the  same.  In  other 
respects  they  are  as  different  as  the  educational  ideas  and  wishes  of  those 
who  procured  them.  They  are  necessarily  imperfect  and  are  becoming 
irom  year  to  year,  owing  to  the  additional  legislation  made  necessary 
by  them,  more  and  more  difficult  to  constnie.  They  consequently  give 
rise  to  more  vexatious  legal  questions  tlian  all  of  the  11,785  other  school 
districts  put  together.  This  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  these  charters 
themselves  are  special  acts  and  consequently  must  receive  a  strict  con- 
struction. No  powers  may  be  exercised  by  the  boards  of  a  special  charter 
district,  except  those  which  are  expressly  conferred  in  the  charter  and 
supplementary  acts,  and  those  which  bv  clear  implication  are  necessary 
to  carry  into  effect  the  powers  definitely  conferred.  This  is  contrary 
to  the  opinion  of  some  who  favor  the  preservation  of  a  special  charter 
with  the  idea  that  it  confers  powers  additional  to  those  of  the  general 
law.  The  opj^osite,  however,  is  true.  The  Board  of  Education  of  a  dis- 
trict operating  under  a  special  charter  has  only  such  powers  as  are  ex- 
pressly granted. 

Now,  it  is  highly  desirable,  in  order  to  secure  greater  uniformity  in 
school  organization  and  administration,  to  simplify  the  school  law  of  the 
State  and  to  diminish  the  cost  and  trouble  of  special  legislation,  that 
all  these  special  charters  be  surrendered  and  the  schools  of  all  special 
districts  be  organized  and  operated  under  the  general  law.  There  is 
every  reason  why  this  should  be  done.  If  the  charter  of  a  special  dis- 
trict is  better  than  the  general  la\V,  then  that  district  enjoys  certain 
desirable  privileges  which  are  withheld  from  other  districts  of  the  State. 
There  can  be  no  good  reason  why  this  should  be  the  case.  The  powers 
and  privileges  exercised  under  the  best  special  charters  should  be  con- 
ferred upon  all  districts  alike.  If  this  were  done  special  charters  would 
probably  be  relinquished  without  additional  legislation.  There  would 
be  no  particular  object  in  retaining  them.  For  this  reason  the  general 
law  should  incorporate  the  advantages  now  enjoyed  by  special  charter 
districts. 

The  chief  advantages  enjoyed  by  these  districts  are  two ;  namely, 
smaller  boards  of  education  in  most  cases,  and  the  power  to  select  sites 
for  school  buildings,  and  to  erect  such  buildings,  without  a  vote  of  the 
people.  If  these  two  powers  were  incorporated  in  the  general  law  there 
would  be  little  excuse  for  the  continued  existence  of  some  of  the  special 


13 

charters.  They  would  fall  away  by  their  own  weiffht  and  at  least  some 
of  the  special  charter  districts  would  voluntarily  organize  under  the 
general  law. 

That  these  advantages  may  be  incorporated  in  the.  general  law,  tho 
commission  recommends  that  section  123  of  an  act  to  establish  and  main- 
tain a  system  of  free  schools,  approved  and  in  force  June  13,  190!),  be 
amended  to  read  as  follows: 

Section  123.  In  all  school  districts  having  a  population  of  not  fewer  than 
1,000  and  not  more  than  100,000  inhabitants,  and  not  governed  by  special 
Acts,  and  in  such  other  districts  as  may  hereafter  be  ascertained  by  any 
special  or  general  census  to  have  such  population,  there  shall  be  elected 
a  board  of  education  to  consist  of  a  president  and  six  members.  When 
such  board  of  education  is  the  successor  of  the  school  directors,  all  rights 
of  property,  and  all  rights  regarding  causes  of  action  existing  or  vested  In 
such  directors,  shall  vest  in  it  as  fully  and  completely  as  they  were  vested  in 
the  school  directors. 

This  amendment  would  limit  the  number  of  members  of  boards  of 
education  in  cities  of  fewer  than  100,000  inliabitants  to  seven, 
as  well  as  eliminate  from  the  law  an  ambiguous  statement  in  re- 
gard to  the  increase  o'f  such  members.  It  would  be  in  accord,  too, 
with  the  best  educational  -thought.  The  tendency  today  is  toward  smaller 
boards  of  administration.  They  are  more  easily  brought  together,  they 
are  more  informal  in  their  methods  of  discussion,  and  in  general  more 
effective. 

To  bring  the  second  advantage  within  the  general  school  law  the  com- 
mission recommends  that  section  127  of  an  act  to  establish  and  maintain 
a  system  of  free  schools,  approved  and  in  force  June  12,  1909,  be 
amended  so  as  to  give  to  all  boards  of  education  in  districts  having  more 
than  10,000  inhabitants  the  power  to  purchase  or  lease  sites  for 
school  houses  and  to  erect  school  buildings  without  the  necessity  of  peti- 
tion or  an  election.  The  boards  of  almost  if  not  quite  all  special  charter 
districts  exercise  this  power.  Twenty-three  of  these  districts  have  a 
population  of  less  than  10,000.  The  amendment  here  proposed 
will  not  reach  these  districts,  but  in  the  case  of  those  having  a  population 
of  more  than  10,000  it  will  remove  one  great  obstacle  in  the  way 
of  organizing  under  the  general  school  law.  It  is  reasonably  certain 
from  the  manner  in  which  this  power  has  been  exercised  bv  boards  of 
education  upon  whicli  it  has  been  specially  granted,  that  it  may  safely 
be  conferred  upon  all.  With  this  amendment  and  others  elsewhere  sug- 
gested by  the  commission  section  127  would  read  as  follows: 

Section  127.  The  board  of  education  shall  have  all  the  powers  of  school  di- 
rectors, be  subject  to  the  same  limitations,  and  in  addition  thereto  they  shall 
have  power,  and  it  shall  be  their  duty: 

1.  To  establish  and  maintain  free  schools  for  not  less  than  seven  nor 
more  than  ten  months  in  each  year. 

2.  To  erect,  hire  or  purchase  buildings  suitable  for  school  purposes,  and 
keep  the  same  in  repair. 

3.  To  buy  or  lease  sites  for  school  houses,  with  the  necessary  grounds. 

4.  To  furnish  schools  with  the  necessary  fixtures,  furniture,  apparatus, 
libraries  and  fuel. 

5.  To  divide  the  district  into  sub-districts,  to  create  new  ones,  and  to  alter 
or  consolidate  them. 


14 

6.  To  establish  different  grades,  and  assign  pupils  to  the  several  schools. 

7.  To  appoint  a  secretary  who  shall  keep  a  faithful  record  of  all  their 
proceedings. 

8.  To  employ  a  competent  superintendent  who  may,  after  two  years  of 
Bervice,  be  employed  for  periods  of  four  years. 

9.  To  dismiss  any  teacher  for  cause,  upon  written  charges,  after  a  hear- 
ing before  the  said  board  of  education. 

10.  To  levy  a  tax  to  extend  schools  beyond  a  period  of  ten  months,  in  each 
year,  upon  a  petition  of  a  majority  of  the  voters  of  the  district. 

11.  To  request  the  trustees  of  schools,  in  writing,  to  convey  any  real  es- 
tate or  interest  therein  used  for  school  purposes,  or  held  in  trust  for  schools. 

12.  To  prepare  and  publish  annually  in  some  newspaper,  or  in  pamphlet 
form,  a  report  including  the  school  attendance  in  the  year  preceding,  the 
program  of  studies,  the  number  of  persons  between  the  ages  of  twelve  and 
twenty-one  unable  to  read  and  write,  and  a  statement  of  the  receipts  and 
expenditures,  with  the  balance  on  hand. 


15 


THE  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION. 


With  one  exception  every  state  and  territory  in  the  Union  has  an 
executive  school  officer  who  is  at  the  head  of  the  state  or  territorial 
school  system.  Delaware  should  perhaps  be  recorded  as  the  exception 
since  in.  that  state  the  Auditor  acts  as  secretary  of  the  State  Board  of 
Education,  Between  1875  and  1886  it  had  a  superintendent  of  free 
schools. 

The  legal  title  of  this  state  school  executive  varies  widely.  More 
than  a  dozen  different  names  are  employed.  In  twenty-two  states  it  is 
"The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction;"  in  ten,  "The  State  Super- 
intendent of  Public  Instruction;"'  in  three,  "The  Secretary  of  the  State 
Board  of  Education;"  in  two,  "The  State  Superintendent  of  Public 
Schools ;"  and  in  two,  "The  Superintendent  of  Education."  Other  titles 
employed  are,  superintendent  of  public  education,  state  superintendent 
of  education,  state  superintendent  of  public  education,  state  superin- 
dent  of  free  schools,  commissioner  of  education,  state  school  commis- 
sioner, commissioner  of  public  schools  and  state  commissioner  of  common 
schools. 

The  first  state  to  provide  an  executive  board  of  her  school  system  was 
New  York.  In  1812  provision  was  made  by  legislation  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  su])erintendent  of  common  schools  and  on  January  14,  1813, 
Gideon  Hawley  was  elected  to  that  office.  He  served  until  February 
22,  1821.  On  April  3rd  of  that  year,  the  office  was  abolished  and  its 
duties  attached  to  tliosc  of  the  Secretar}'  of  State.  In  1854.  the  office 
of  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  was  created,  since  which  time 
New  York  has  had  separate  school  supervision.  In  1904,  the  title  was 
changed  to  commissioner  of  education. 

Manland  followed  the  example  of  New  York  and  in  1825  created 
the  office  of  state  superintendent.  In  1827,  however,  it  was  abolished, 
and  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been  revived  until  1864. 

The  next  state  to  provide  for  general  school  supervision  was  Vermont. 
A  law  of  that  state  enacted  in  1827  required  the  Secretary  of  State  to 
collect  school  statistics  from  the  various  towns.  In  1845,  the  office  of 
State  Superintendent  of  Common  Schools  was  created.  In  1851,  the 
General  Assembly  refused  to  choose  a  sunerintendent  but  the  office  was 
revived  under  the  new  law  passed  in  1856. 

One  by  one  other  states  instituted  general  school  supervision  by  a 
personal  executive.  Pennsylvania  in  1835,  ^lichigan  in  1836,  ilassachu- 
setts,  Kentucky  and  Ohio  in  1837,  and  Connecticut  in  1839,  provided  in 


16 

greater  or  lesser  degree  some  form  of  state  supervision  of  schools 
through  a  state  officer — either  the  SecretaiT  of  State,  a  Superintendent  of 
Schools  or  a  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Education.  As  a  rule,  how- 
ever, the  office  has  not  been  continuous.  State  supervision,  like  other 
desirable  features  of  our  present  state  educational  systems,  won  its  way 
only  by  slow  demonstrations  of  its  peculiar  advantages. 

Qualifications. 

Only  six  of  the  states  provide  a  standard  of  qualifications  for  their 
chief  office  of  educational  administration.  In  Virginia  the  superinten- 
dent of  public  instruction  must  be  "an  experienced  educator,"  in  Ten- 
nessee he  must  be  "a  person  of  literary  and  scientific  attainments,  and  of 
skill  and  experience  in  the  art  of  teaching,"  and  in  West  Virginia  he 
must  be  "a  person  of  good  moral  character,  of  temperate  habits,  of  liter- 
ary acquirements  and  skill  and  experience  in  the  art  of  teaching.'" 
Three  of  the  states  have  a  somewhat  higher  standard.  The  school  law 
of  Montana  provides  that  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  "''shall 
have  attained  the  age  of  thirty  years  at  the  time  of  his  election  and 
shall  have  resided  within  the  state  two  years  next  preceding  his  election, 
and  be  the  holder  of  a  state  certificate  of  the  highest  grade,  issued  in 
some  state,  or  a  graduate  of  some  reputable  university,  college  or  normal 
school."  An  equally  high  standard  is  provided  by  the  law  of  Wisconsin 
which  declares  that  "no  person  shall  be  eligible  to  the  office  of  state 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  who  shall  not,  at  the  time  of  his 
election  thereto,  have  taught  or  supervised  teaching  in  the  state  of 
Wisconsin,  for  a  period  of  not  less  than  five  years,  and  who  shall  not,, 
at  such  time,  hold  the  highest  s-rade  of  certificate  which  the  state  super- 
intendent is  by  law  empowered  to  issue."  So,  also,  Utali  requires  her 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  to  be  a  qualified  elector,  a  resident 
citizen  of  the  state  for  five  years  next  preceding  his  election,  to  have- 
attained  the  age  of  thirty  years  and  to  be  the  holder  of  a  state  certifi- 
cate of  the  highest  grade  issued  in  some  state,  or  a  graduate  of  some  rep- 
utable university,  college  or  normal  school."  Two  of  the  states,  namely, 
North  Dakota  and  Oklahoma,  while  the--  require  no  educational  qualifi- 
cations of  their  state  superintendents,  make  certain  unusual  require- 
ments. In  North  Dakota  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  must 
have  attained  the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  be  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  and  have  the  qualifications  of  state  electors.  In  Oklahoma  only 
"a  male  citizen  of  the  United  States  of  the  age  of  not  less  than  thirty 
years,  and  who  shall  have  been  three  years  next  preceding  his  election  a 
nualified  elector"  of  the  state  is  eligible  to  the  office  of  superintendent  of 
]-jublic  instruction.  This  specific  limitation  of  the  office  to  male  citizens 
is  unique.  In  Colorado  and  Idaho,  women  are  now  incumbents  of  the 
office. 

Election. 

The  usual  method  of  electing  the  chief  school  officer  is  l)y  popular 
election.  This  is  the  practice  in  thirty-three  of  the  states.  In  seven 
of  the  states  and  the  two  territories  he  is  appointed  by  the  Governor. 


17 

In  Connecticut,  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Ishmd  he  is  elected  by  the 
state  board  of  education  and  in  Xew  York  by  the  state  board  of  regents. 
In  Vermont  he  is  elected  bv  the  General  Assembly  and  in  Delaware,  as 
already  pointed  out,  the  state  auditor  is  ex  officio  the  secretary  of  the 
state  board  of  education. 

Tlie  election  by  the  people,  as  well  as  that  of  election  by  the  General 
Assembly,  is  open  to  the  objection  that  political  affiliations  and  political 
expediency  ratlier  than  merit  determine  the  selection  of  a  candidate  for 
the  otfice  of  superintendent  of  public  instruction.  It  does  not  always 
happen  that  the  man  best  qualified  for  the 'duties  of  the  position  belongs 
to  the  dominant  party.  Yet  a  political  party  is  not  likely  to  select  a 
candidate  outside  its  ranks.  Again,  the  state  superintendency  is  to  the 
politicians,  perhaps,  the  least  important  of  the  state  offices.  The  nomin- 
ation of  a  state  superintendent's  usually  left  to  the  closing  hours  of  a 
more  or  less  turbulent  political  convention.  Political  "trades"  have,, 
nerhaps,  been  entered  into  involving-  the  office.  The  demands  of  congres- 
sional districts  not  represented  on  the  ticket  have  become  more  urgent 
and  insistent.  Availability  rather  than  ability  is  the  consideration. 
It  therefore  often  hannens  that,  to  say  the  very  least,  the  best  qualified 
person  for  the  office  is  not  selected,  and  when  this  is  the  case  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  arouse  and  to  crs^stallize  ^^^^nilar  indignation.  It  seems  to  l)e  a 
rule  that  the  more  remote  an  office  is  from  the  immediate  material  in- 
terests of  the  people  the  more  difficult  it  is  to  nrevent  the  election  of  an 
unsatisfactory  candidate.  Election  of  the  superintendent  by  tlie  people 
is  well  established,  the  results  have  been  fairly  satisfactory,  and  a 
proposal  to  ehano-e  the  method  from  election  to  appointment  would  ])rob- 
ably  meet  the  determined  ojijiosition  of  the  people. 

The  appointment  of  the  school  executive  by  the  Governor  or  by  a 
state  board  has  worked  well  in  those  states  in  which  this  method  of  elect- 
ing this  officer  has  been  practiced.  If  ■•'political  considerations  have  not 
always  l)een  left  out  of  account  they  have  in  manv  cases  been  plainly 
ignored.  In  Pennsylvania,  for  instance,  in  which  state  the  superinten- 
dent of  public  instruction  is  apnointed  b"  the  Gov-ernor,  with  the  advice 
ami  consent  of  two-thirds  of  all  the  members  of  the  Senate,  there  has 
been  no  strictly  jiolitical  appointment  to  the  office  of  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  during  the  last  generation.  The  present  incumbent 
has  held  the  position  for  sixteen  years. 

A  bi-partisan,  or  non-political  board,  as  an  appointive  bodv,  is  still 
further  removed  from  political  bias  and  influence  than  the  Goverrrir, 
and  the  dauixer  of  appointment  as  a  reward  for  party  services  is  con- 
sequently still  more  remote.  Horace  jMann  owed  his  appointment  to 
the  secretaryship  of  the  ^[assachusetts  state  board  of  education,  and  his 
long  continuance  in  office  not  to  his  ])olitical  services  l)ut  to  his  interest 
in  education  and  his  efficiency  as  an  educator. 

Term. 

The  term  of  office  of  the  heads  of  the  school  systems  of  the  various 
states  range  from  one  year  in  Delaware,  ^lassachusetts  and  Khode  Is- 
land  to  five  years  in   Xew  Jersov,  '"during  good   behavior"   in   Connec- 
—2  EC 


1« 

ticut,  and  "during  the  pleasure  of  the  board  of  regents"  in  New  York. 
In  nineteen  of  the  states  the  term  is  two  years,  in  three  of  the  states 
three  years  and  in  nineteen  of  the  states  four  years.  The  tendency  is 
.towards. a  longer  term.  A  short  term  is  not  necessarily  inconsistent 
with  long  continuance  in  office.  The  term  in  Pennsylvania  is  only  four 
years,  but  the  present  incumbent  is  now  serving  his  fifth  term.  In 
Massachusetts,  the  secretary  of  the  state  board  of  education  is  elected 
each  year  but  the  average  i:erm  of  service  since  the  creation  of  the 
office  has  been  about  ten  years.  So,  also,  in  Connecticut,  although  the 
nominal  term  is  one  year  the  state  has  had  the  same  secretary  since  1883. 

Salary. 

The  average  salary  attached  to  the  highest  school  office  of  the  various 
states  is  $2,939.58.  The  highest  salaries  are  paid  by  Illinois  and  New 
York.  In  New,  York  the  law  provides  that  the  commissioner  of  educa- 
tion shall  receive  an  annual  salary  of  $7,500.00  and  $1,500.00  for  travel- 
ing and  other  expenses.  In  Illinois . the  salary  is  $7,500.00.  All  neces- 
sary traveling  expenses  and  contingent  expenses  for  books,  postage  and 
stationery  pertaining  to  his  office  are  also  allowed. 

The  State  Superintendency  in  Illinois. 

In  Illinois  a  faint  beginning  of  State  school  supervision  manifested 
itself  in  1837.  By  an  Act  approved  March  4th  of  that  year  trustees  of 
schools  were  required  to  make  annual  reports  to  county  school  commis- 
sioners who  in  turn  were  required  to  transmit  abstracts  of  these  reports 
to  the  Auditor  of  Public  Accounts  to  be  by  him  laid  before  the  General 
Assembly.  Under  this  provision  a  report  was  made  by  the  Auditor  to 
the  General  Assembly  on  January  7,  1839,  showing  the  condition  of  the 
schools  for  the  year  1837.  During  the  next  half  dozen  years  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  State  Superintendent  was  urged  in  memorials  and  resol- 
utions by  educational  conventions,  by  the  educational  press  and  in  the 
State  Legislature.  Iij  1841,  the  Illinois  Education  Society,  organized 
in  that  year,  urged  upon  the  Legislature  the  appointment  of  a  State 
School  Superintendent.  In  1843  another  effort  was  made  to  secure 
State  supervision.  Petitions  were  circulated  but  there  was  much  op- 
position on  the  ground  of  the  expense  involved  ir.  the  creation  of  the 
new  State  office.  On  December  3,  1844,  tlie  Governor  of  the  State,  in 
a  message  to  the  General  Assembly,  declared  that  but  little  statistics 
or  other  information  of  the  actual  operation  of  existinsr  laws  on  the 
subject  of  common  school  education  had  yet  been  collected  to  enable  the 
General  Assembly  to  legislate  upon  it  with  enlightened  judgment,  and 
recommended  the  appointment  by  the  General  Assem1)ly  of  an  agent 
who  should  travel  over  the  State  and  collect  the  desired  information. 
A  committee,  appointed  by  the  State  School  Convention  to  draw  up  a 
memorial  on  the  subject  of  common  school  education,  expressed  the 
need  of  an  executive  head  of  the  school  system  in  the  following  language : 
"We  need  a  central  power  like  the  heart  to  the  liuman  system,  to  keep 
the  works  in  motion ;  and  to  have  a  regular  communication  established 


19 

by  intermediate  agents  between  tlie  heart  and  the  extremities — Ijetween 
superintendent  and  people;  an  arterial  circulation  to  supply  instruc- 
tions and  advice  to  under  officers,  teachers,  and  parents,  and  veins  to 
convey  information  of  successes  and  failures,  and  of  required  improve- 
ments, to  the  superintendent.  Here  has  been  a  prime,  and  a  sufficient 
cause  of  failure,  in -the  operation  of  our  school  laws.  Suitable  provisions 
have  not  been  made  to  procure  statistics  and  information  of  various 
kinds  to  lay  before  the  Legislature,  and  without  which  enlightened  leg- 
islation could  not  be  expected;  and  our  legislators  have  calculated  too 
much  upon  the  influence  of  private,  individual  advantages  in  having 
good  schools  ,and  have  not  attended  to  awakening  an  interest  in  regions, 
and  in  particular  cases,  where  education  was  not  justly  annreciated,  and 
to  enforcing  the  laws"  where  they  were  neglected."* 

Among  the  reasons  presented  for  creating  the  office  of  State  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction  were  the  following: 

1.  That  the  State  should  have  an  authorized  agent,  as  in  other  public 
appropriations,  to  see  that  its  money  is  rightly  applied,  and  made  useful 
in  the  highest  degree. 

2.  That  the  usefulness  of  the  township  funds  would  be  greatly  increased. 

3.  That  the  Legislature  may  be  supplied  with  reliable  information  con- 
cerning the  operation  of  the  law,  the  condition  of  schools  throughout  the 
State,  the  plans  and  wishes  of  the  people,  and  the  improvements  made  else- 
where;   all  of  which  is  necessary  to  enlightened  and  permanent  legislation. 

4.  The  advantage  of  an  agent  to  operate  in  particular  regions,  where 
the  greatest  apathy  prevails. 

5.  The  necessity  of  enlisting  a  more  general  interest  in  common  schools; 
the  surest  and  best  method  of  doing  such,  is  to  send  a  man  of  the  right  char- 
acter, through  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  State. 

'iJie  opposition  which  then  existi'd  to  the  crsation  of  tlie  ofiice  may 
l)e  inferred  from  the  appeal  of  the  committee  to  those  who  were  op- 
posed to  their  recommendation.  "Several  differ  from  us,"  it  declared, 
"who  have  shown  by  former  efforts,  their  sincere  desire  to  promote  this 
great  cause.  But  we  would  ask  of  them  as  a  particular,  as  a  great  favor, 
to  waive  their  objections  and  yield  their  own  plans,  giving  tliis  their  cor- 
dial support,  even  if  they  think  some  other  measure  less  expensive  might 
be  devised.  Till  now  we  have  not  had  the  office,  and  all  acknowledge 
the  necessity  of  working  a  change ; — let  our  plan  be  tried  for  a  year  or 
two  and  watch  the  consequences.  If  found  not  to  answer  the  purpose, 
the  law  can  be  repealed  at  the  next  session,  and  the  ex])eriment  will 
not  be  very  costly.  Please  not  only  withliold  opposition,  but  give  us  your 
hearty  support." 

The  result  of  this  wide  and  continued  agitation  was  the  passage  of 
an  act  making  the  Secretary  of  State  ex  officio  superintendent  of  com- 
mon schools.  In  December,  184G,  an  educational  convention,  held  in 
Springfield,  appointed  a  committee  instructed  to  memorialize  the  Leg- 
islature for  an  amendment  to  the  school  law  making  the  superintendeney 
of  public  instruction  a  separate  office  to  be  filled  by  the  Legislature. 
Another  convention  which  met  at  the  same  phicc  in  1849  drew  up  •• 
memorial  containing  the  same  request.     Nothing  came  of  these  efforts 


•The  Memorial  of  a  Committee  of  the  State  Scliool  Convention  held  at  Peoria 
in  October,  1S44  upon  the  subject  of  Common  School  Education,  p.  103,  printed 
us  a  Senate  Document. 


20 

until  1854  at  which  time  the  office  of  superintendent  of  puhlic  instruc- 
tion was  created  and  Niniau  W.  Edwards  was  appointed  by  Governor 
Joel  A.  Matteson  as  the  first  incumbent.  He  remained  in  office  until 
Januar}-  13,  1857.  The  following  table  shows  the  names  of  the  super- 
intendents of  Illinois,  the  political  party  to  which  each  belonged,  the 
date  of  their  commission  or  qualification  and  the  county  from  which  they 
were  elected. 


Name. 

Date  of  com- 
mission or 
qualifica- 

tiOD. 

From  what 
county. 

Remarks. 

Nioian  W.  Edwards,  Dam 

Mar.    24,1854 
Jan.    12,1857 
Aug.     1,1859 
Jan.      4,1861 
Jan.     12,1863 
Jan.     10,1865 

Sangamon 

Peoria 

Appointed  by  Governor 

Wm.  H.  Powell.  Rep 

Newton  Bateman,  Rep 

Morgan  

Newton  Bateman,  Rep 

.  .do 

John  P.  Brooks,  Dem 

Newton  Bateman,  Rep 

.  .do     

Newton  Bateman,  Rep 

Jan.     10,1867 

.  .do 

Newton  Bateman,  Rep 

Sam'l  M .  Etter,  Dem 

Nov.     8.1870 
Jan.     11,1875 
Jan.     13,1879 
Jan.      5.1883 
Jan.      6,1887 
Jan.     12,1891 
Jan.    14,1895 
June  23,1898 

Jan.    11,1899 
Jan.    12,1903 
Jan.     10,1907 

..do 

McLean 

Term  extended  to  four  years. . . . 

James  P.  Slade,  Rep 

St.  Clair  

Henry  Raab,  Dem 

.  .do     

Richard  Edwards,  Rep 

Bureau 

Henry  Raab,  Dem 

St.  Clair      .   .. 

Samuel  IurUs,  Rep 

Jackson ,. 

Kane 

Died,  June  23,  1898 

Jos.  H.  Freeman,  Rep 

By  appointment,  vice  Inglis, de- 

Alfred Bayliss,  Rep 

LaSalle 

ceased  

Alfred  Bayliss,  Rep 

..do  

Francis  G.  Blair,  Rep 

Coles 

It  is  unnecessary  to  trace  the  development  of  the  state  superintend- 
ency  in  the  other  states  of  the  Union.  Its  history  in  most  of  the  older 
states  shows  that  it  has  rarely  been  from  the  first  a  separate  and  con- 
tinuous office.  The  usual  course  has  been  the  assignment  of  the  dutv 
of  collecting  school  statistics  to  a  state  officer.  Later  the  establishment 
of  the  superiutendency,  then  its  abolishment  and  re-establishment.  Dur- 
ing the  last  half  century,  however,  the  principle  of  state  supervision  of 
the  pul)lic  schools  has  become  definitely  and  permanently  established. 

The  following  table  shows  the  title  of  the  executive  school  officer  in 
the  various  states  and  the  year  in  which  the  present  system  of  state 
supervision  acquired  some  degree  of  permanence : 


Table  Showing  the  Title  of  the  Chief  School  Officer  of  Each  State  and 
Territory,  and  the  year  in  which  the  Present  System  Oriqinated. 


State. 


Title. 


Origin. 


Alabama  ... 

Arizona 

Arkansas  ... 

California.. . 
Colorado  ... 

Connecticut 


Superintendent  of  Education,  superintendent  185-4-67, 
state  comptroller  ex  officio  1867-68    

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction .  .  . 

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  state  auditor 
ex  officio  1836-61    

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction    

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  territorial  secretary 
ex  officio  to  1870,  territorial  superintendent  1870-76.... 

Secretary  of  State  Board  of  Education,  .secretary  of  com- 
missioners 1839-42,  school  fund  commissioner  ex  officio 
1845-49  ;  pi-incipal  state  normal  school  ex  officio  1849-65 


1868. 
1878. 

1868. 
1851. 

1876. 
1865. 


31 


Table  ShoiciiKj  Tiile,  ^/c— Conckded. 


state. 


Title. 


Origin. 


Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana  

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts. .. 

Michigan 

Minnesota  

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana  

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico 

New  York 

North  Carolina.. 

North  Dakota  ... 
Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania.... 

Rhode  Island.... 
South  Carolina.. 
South  Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West  Virginia... 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 


1875. 
1868. 
1870. 
1890. 

1854. 


1873. 

1846. 
1861. 
1837. 

1870. 
18.54. 

1886. 
1837. 
1836 
1856. 
1870. 


Secretary  State  Board  of  Education  (auditor  acts  ex 
officio),   superintendent  of  free  .schools   1875-1886 

Superintendent  of  Public  ]n.struction    

State   School   Commissioner    

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction    

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  State  Auditor  1837, 
secretary  of  state  ex  officio  1844-54    

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  1835-1844  ; 
state  treasurer  ex  officio  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction 1844-1867  ;  state  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction 1867-1870  ;  state  treasurer  ex  officio  superin- 
tendent of  public  Instruction  1870-1873    

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  territorial  superin- 
tendent  1841-43,  secretary  board   1848-64    

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction    

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction    

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Education,  secretary  of 
state  ex  officio   1833-46,  superintendent  1847-69    

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools   .' 

Superintendent  of  Public  Education,  principal  state  normal 
school  ex  officio  18GS-1902,  superintendent  1864-68   

Secretary  of  State  Board  of  Education   

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction    

State   Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction    

State  Superintendent  of  Education    

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  state  officers  ex 
officio  1835-39,  secretary  of  state  ex  officio  1841-51, 
superintendent  1853-61,  secretary  of  state  ex  officio 
1861-65 

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  territorial  superin- 
tendent    1872-89     

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction    

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction    

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  commissioner  1846- 
50,  secretary  county  commissioners  ex  officio  1850-67.. 

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction    

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction    

Cf)mmissioner  of  Education,  superintendent  1904,  super- 
intendent 1S13-21,  secretary  of  state  ex  officio  1821-54.  . 

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  superintendent 
1852-65    |1870 

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction    1889 

State  Commissioner  of  Common  Schools,  superintendent 
1837-40,   secretary  of  state  ex  officio  1840-53    

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction    

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  governor  ex  officio 
1859-72    

Sui^erintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  secretary  of  com- 
monwealth ex  officio  1835-57,  superintendent  of  com- 
mon schools  1857-73    

Commissioner  of  Public   Schools,   agent  1843-45    

State  Superintendent  of  Education    

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  territorial  superin- 
tendent 1S69-89  for  both  states  as  one  territory 

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  state  treas- 
urer ex  officio  1869-72    

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction    

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction 

Superintendent  of  Education,  secretary  of  board  1856-74.. 

.Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction    

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  territorial  superin- 
tendent   1872-89    

State  Superintendent  of  Free  Schools    

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction    

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction    


1865. 

1889. 
1869. 
1866. 

1867. 
1845. 
1891. 

1854. 


1853. 


1873. 


1857. 
1845. 
1868. 

1889. 

1873. 
1874. 


1845. 
1870. 


1889. 
1865. 
1819. 


:^2 

Powers  and  Duties. 

Tlie  powers  and  duties  of  the  chief  school  officers  of  the  various  states 
differ  considerably  in  some  particulars,  but  in  other  respects  are  prac- 
tically the  same.  They  have  been  classified  as  statistical,  advisory  and 
judicial,  supervisory  and  administrative.*  All  are  required  to  report 
annually  or  biennially  to  the  Governor  or  the  Legislature.  Many  of 
them  hear  and  determine  appeals  from  the  decision  of  other  school 
officers  and  decide  questions  of  school  law.  In  several  of  the  states  the 
superintendent  exercises  general  supervision  over  the  public  schools, 
and  in  certain  cases  over  all  the  educational  interests  of  the  state.  Fre- 
quently he  apportions  school  moneys,  grants  certificates,  organizes  and 
conducts  institutes  and  performs  other  administrative  functions. 

While  in  many  of  the  states  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  superintend- 
ent are  large,  in  no  other  state  are  they  so  extended  as  in  New  York. 
In  that  state  all  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  board  of  regents  in  rela- 
tion to  the  supervision  of  elementary  and  secondary  schools,  including 
all  schools  except  colleges,  technical  and  professional  schools,  are  de- 
volved upon  the  commissioner  of  education.  He  acts  as  an  execu-ive 
officer  of  the  lioard  of  regents  and  is  a  member  of  the  board  of  trus- 
tees of  Cornell  University.  He  has  power  to  create  such  departments 
as  in  his  judgment  shall  be  necessary.  He  annoints  deputies  and  heads 
of  such  departments,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  state  board  of  re- 
gents. He  apportions  the  state  school  funds,  determines  the  condi- 
tions of  admission,  the  courses  of  work  and  the  employment  of  teachers, 
and  audits  all  the  accounts  of  the  twelve  normal  schools  of  the  state. 
He  has  unlimited  authority  over  the  examination  and  certification  of 
teachers.  He  regulates  the  official  action  of  the  school  commissioners  in 
all  of  the  assembly  districts  of  the  state.  He  appoints  the  teachers' 
institutes,  arranges  the  work,  names  the  instructors  and  pays  the  bills. 
He  determines  the  boundaries  of  school  districts.  He  provides  schools 
for  the  defective  classes  and  for  the  seven  Indian  reservations  yet  re- 
maining in  the  state.  He  may  condemn  school  houses  and  require  new 
ones  to  be  built.  He  may  direct  new  furnishings  to  be  provided.  He 
may  entertain  appeals  by  any  person  conceiving  himself  aggrieved  from 
any  order  or  proceeding  of  local  school  officials,  determine  the  prac- 
tice therein,  and  make  final  disposition  of  the  matter  in  dispute,  and  in 
his  decision  can  not  be  "called  in  question  in  any  court  or  in  any  other 
place  .'^* 


•Administration  of  Public  Education   of  the   United   States,   Button   &   Snedden, 
pp  69-70. 

♦Education  in  the  United  States,  Volume  1,  p.  20. 


23 


The  fnllowiii<f  table  shows  the  manner  of  election,  term  of  oflice,  tlio 
salaries  and  the  powers  and  duties  of  each  of  the  chief  school  officers  of: 
the  varions  states  and  teiTitories :     •      '  ^ 

Table  Sliotoing  ihC  manner  of  election,  ternt,  salary,  and  the  most  im- 
portant poivers  and  duties  of  the  chief  school  officer  of  each  state  and 
territory  in  the  United  States. 


State . 


Election. 


Term.        Salary. 


Ppwers  and  Duties. 


Alabama. 


Arlzooa. 


Arkansas 


California. 


Colorado . 


Connecticut 


Delaware! 


By  people  ... 


By  governor.. 


By  people 


By  people  .. 


By  people  ... 


Appointed  by 
board 


$3,000 


2,000 


2,500 


3,000 


3.000 


3,500 


1.  To  exercise  general  supervision 
over  all  educational  Interests  of 
State.  2.  To  remove  from  office 
any  officer  for  neglect  of  duty.  3. 
To  visit  annually  every  county.  4. 
To     prescribe     uniform     system     of 

■  keepmg  reports.  5.  To  provide  for 
instructing  children  in  hygiene  and 
phyiology  with  special  reference  to 
effects  of  alcoholic  drinks.  6.  To 
report  biennially  to  Governor! 

1.  To  superintend  public  schools.  2. 
To  investigate  accounts  of  school 
officers.  3.  To  apportion  school 
money.  4.  .  To.  -prescribe  uniform 
system  of  keeping  records.  5.  To 
report  to  Governor  preceding  each 
regular  session  of  Legislature. 

1.  To  furnish  examination  questions 
to  county  examiner.  2.  To  prescribe 
uniform  system  of  keeping  accounts. 
3.  To  have  general  supervision  of 
school  revenues.  4.  To  report  an- 
nually to  Governor.  5.  To  grant  life 
certificates. 

1.  To  apportion  Stat^  school  fund.- :l?^.'. 
To  have  all  reports  and  documents 
bound.  3.  To  visit  State  orphan  asy- 
lums. 4.  To  call  biennially  conven- 
tion of  city  and  county  superintend- 
ents. 5.  To  furnish  necessary  blanks 
to  school  officers.  6.  To  superintend 
the  schools  of  the  State.  7.  To  re- 
port -  biennially-  to  Governor.  8. 
To  visit  the  schools  of  the  counties. 

1.  To  decide  all  points  regarding 
school  law.  2.  To  prepare  exam- 
ination questions  for  county  super- 
intendents. 3.  To  furnish  blanks  and 
registers  to  school  officers.  4.  To 
have  school  law  printed.  5.  To  re- 
port annually  to  Governor.  6.  To 
apportion  school  fund. 

1.  To  draw  orders  for  library  money. 
2.  To  furnish  blanks  and  registers 
to  private  schools.  3.  To  inspect 
certificates  of  age.  4.  To  perform 
such  other  duties  as  the  board  may 
require. 


•Practically   during  good   behavior. 

IThe  State  Auditor  acts  as  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Education. 


24: 


Table  Slioiring  Uw  Manner  of  Elcciiun.  Elv. — Continued. 


State. 


Election. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


Florida By  people 


Georgia. 


Idaho . 


Illinois. 


ladiana . 


Iowa 


By  people 


By  people 


By  people 


By  people 


By  electors , 


2,500 


2,000 


2,400 


7,500 


Kansas. 


By  people 


3,000 


2,200 


2,500 


To  print  and  di.stribute  school 
law.s.  2.  To  call  convention  of 
county  superintendents  and  other 
officers.  3.  To  hold  institutes.  4. 
To  apportion  school  money.  5,  To 
liold  examinations  and  grant  certi- 
ficates. 6.  To  visit  seminaries  an- 
nually.    7.   To  decide  appeals. 

1.  To  visit  schools.  2.  To  see  that 
school  law  is  enforced.  3.  To  see 
that  school  fund  is  properly  ex- 
pended. 4.  To  report  annually  to 
Governor. 


1.  "To  prepare  examination  questions 
for  county  superintendents.  2.  To 
prescribe  course  of  study.  3.  To 
prescribe  rules  and  regulations  for 
institutes.  4.  To  prepare  and  fur- 
nish blanks  to  officers.  5.  To  report 
biennially  to  Governor.  6.  To  pre- 
pare  final   eighth   grade   questions. 

1.  To  file  all  reports  and  public  doc- 
uments. 2.  To  address  circular  let- 
ters to  county  superintendents  as  he 
shall  deem  for  the  interests  of 
schools.  3.  To  be  legal  advisor  of 
.school  officers.  4.  To  hekr  and  de- 
termine controversies.  5.  To  grant 
state  certificates.  6.  To  visit  and 
examine  charitable  institutions.  7. 
To  iiutiiorize  county  superintendents 
to  procure  necessary  help  to  con- 
duct   institutes. 

1.  To  have  general  supervision  of 
schools.  2.  To  report  biennially  to 
Governor.  3.  To  examine  auditor's 
books  and  records.  4.  To  supervise 
.'chool  funds.  5.  To  provide  officers 
with  necessary  blanks.  6.  To  pub- 
lisli   sciiool   laws. 

1.  To  have  general  supervision  of 
county  superintendents  and  public 
sclioois.  2.  To  call  meetings  of 
county  superintendents,  appoint  in- 
stitutes, approve  institute  faculties, 
visit  institutes,  and  deliver  educa- 
tional addresses.  3.  To  hear  and 
decide  appeals  from  decisions  of 
county  supei-iiitendents.  4.  To  pub- 
lish school  laws  and  outlines  on 
educational  matters.  5.  To  be  ex 
officio  president  of  Educational 
Board  of  Examiners,  chairman  of  the 
Board  of  Trustees  of  State  Normal 
and  member  of-  tlie  Board  of  Re- 
jiOiits  of  the  Uriversity,  and  of  the 
Board  of  Trust-its  cl"  trie  State  Col- 
lege. 

1.  To  have  general  supervision  of  the 
common  school  funds  and  educa- 
tional interest  of  the  state.  2.  To 
perform  such  other  duties  as  may 
be  prescribed  by  law. 


35 


Table  Showing  the  Manner  of  Election,  Etc. — Continued. 


state. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


Kentucky. 


Louisiana. 


Maine 


Maryland. 


By  people 


By  people. 


By  governor. 


By  governor. 


Massachusetts  By  board 


Michigan By  people 


2,500 


2,000 


2,500 


3.000 


4,500 


2,000 


To  report  biennially  condition  and 
progres.s  of  .^cliools.  2.  To  give  gen- 
eral information  concerning  in.stitu- 
tions  for  deaf  and  dumb,  blind  and 
feeble-minded.  3.  To  prepare  and 
furnish  nece.ssary  blanks.  4.  To  col- 
lect, arrange  and  index,  biennially, 
the  school  laws.  .5.  To  publish  an- 
nually general  school  laws  of  state. 
6.   To  decide  appeals. 

To  supervise  school  system  of 
State.  2.  To  visit  all  parishes  as 
often  as  practicable.  3.  To  keep  ac- 
count of  all  orders  drawn  or  coun- 
tersigned by  him  on  auditor.  4.  To 
report  biennially  condition  and  pro- 
gress of  schools.  5.  To  report  to 
Board  of  Education  neglect  of  duty 
or  Improper  u.se  of  school  funds.  6. 
To  decide  controversies.  7.  To  pre- 
scribe courses  of  study  not  other- 
wise provided  for. 

To  have  general  supervision  of 
schools.  2.  To  obtain  information 
regarding  education  throughout  the 
world.  3.  To  conduct  .summer  train- 
ing schools.  4.  To  compile  and  dis- 
tribute biennially  3.000  copies  of 
amended  school  law.  5.  To  pre- 
scribe common  school  studies.  6.  To 
furnish  blanks  to  school  officers.  7. 
To  report  annually  to  Governor.  8. 
To  hold  examinations  and  issue  state 
certificates. 

To  inform  liim.self  and  Board  of 
Education  as  to  condition  of  public 
schools  in  state.  2.  To  examine 
county  school  fund  and  report  to 
State  Board.  3.  To  arrange  for, 
and  conduct  teachers'  institutes.  4. 
To  endorse  Normal  school  diplomas 
rroin  other  states.  5.  To  be  mem- 
ber of  .State  Board  of  Education  and 
its  siM  r(  lary  and  treasurer.  6.  To 
inspect  high  school  and  manual 
training  .school.s.  7.  To  be  trustee 
of  each  State  Normal  school. 

To  visit  schools.  2.  To  collect  and 
distribute  information  regarding 
conditions  of  public  schools  and 
best  methods  of  instruction.  3.  To 
give  notice  of.  and  attend  teachers' 
meetings.  4.  To  act  as  one  of  com- 
missioners to  invest  and  manage 
State   school    fund. 

To  supervise  normal  training 
classes.  2.  To  examine  and  audit 
acounts  of  any  district.  3.  To  re- 
quire districts  to  maintain  school  for 
at  least  statutory  period.  4.  To  re- 
quest Governor  to  remove  any 
county  commissioner  or  school  ex- 
aminer for  sufficient  reason.  5.  To 
report  annually  to  Governor.  6.  To 
appoint  dei)uty  superintendent.  7. 
To  prepare  rules  and  regulations  for 
management  of  librarle.s.  S.  To  act 
as  secretary   of  State   School    Board. 


56 


Table  Showing  Ihe  Manner  of  Election.  Etc. — Continued. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


Minnesota. 


Mississippi ... 


Missouri . 


Montana. 


Nebraska 


Nevada , 


N.  Hampshire 


By  povernor.. 


By  people.. 


By  people.. 


By  people 


By  people. 


By  people. 


By  governor. 


3,000 


2,500 


3,000 


3.  COO 


2,000 


2,000 


2,500 


1.  To  meet  and  confer  with  county 
and  city  superintendents.  2.  To  re- 
port biennially  to  Governor.  3.  To 
prepare  and  distribute  blanks  to 
county  superintendents.  4.  To  pro- 
vide for  teachers'  institutes.  5.  To 
apportion  scliool  funds.  6.  To  grant 
and  revoke  certificates. 

1.  To  preside  over  and  visit  schools. 
2.  To  preserve  school  documents.  3. 
To  apportion  school  funds.  4.  To  re- 
port biennially  to  legislature.  5.  To 
be  trustee  of  university  and  colleges. 

1.  To  supervise  school  funds.  2.  To 
require  county  officers  to  furnish 
copies  of  all  records.  3.  To  print 
and  distribute  school  laws.  4.  To 
grant  and  revoke  certificates.  5.  To 
employ  chief  clerk.  6.  To  make  an- 
nual report.  7.  To  elevate  standard 
of  instruction  in  public  schools.  8. 
To  inspect  high  schools  and  classify 
and  publish  lists  of  same.  9.  To  file 
text  books  submitted  for  adoption, 
and  furnish  lists  of  all  books  so 
filed. 

1.  To  have  general  supervision  of 
public  schools.  2.  To  furnish  school 
officers  with  necessary  blanks.  3. 
To  furnish  county  superintendent 
lists  for  school  libraries.  4.  To 
prepare  county  examination  ques- 
tions. 5.  To  prescribe  rules  and 
regulations  for  teachers'  institutes. 
6.  To  decide  appeals  from  county 
superintendents.  7.  To  print  at  least 
once  in  two  years  the  law  with 
such  notes  as  seem  to  him  advisable. 
8.  To  attend  institutes.  9.  To  re- 
port biennially  to  Governor.  10.  To 
apportion    school    fund. 

1.     To  organize  and  attend  institutes. 

2.  To   visit   and   supervise       schools. 

3.  To  decide  controversies.  4.  To 
prescribe  forms  of  reports.  5.  To 
print  and  distribute  school  laws.  6. 
To  report  annually  to  Governor.  7. 
To  appoint  deputy  superintendent.  8. 
To  apportion  school  fund.  9.  To 
organize  and  manage  junior  normal 
schools.  10.  To  prescribe  rules  and 
regulations  governing  certification  of 
teachers.  11.  To  prescribe  rules  and 
regulations  for  normal  training  high 
schools. 

1.  To  visit  schools.  2.  To  conduct  in- 
stitutes. 3.  To  apportion  school 
funds.  4.  To  report  biennially  to 
Governor.  5.  To  prescribe  rules  and 
regulations  for  making  reports,  and 
furnish  blanks  for  same.  6.  To  call 
meetings  of  Board  of  Education  in 
January  and  July.  7.  To  appoint 
deputy    superintendents. 

1.  To  prescribe  forms  of  registers  and 
blanks  to  be  used  in  schools.  2.  To 
supervise  educational  conditions  in 
state.  3.  To  hold  teachers'  insti- 
tiutes. 


27 


Table  Showing  the  Manner  of  Election,  Etc. — Continued. 


State. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


New  Jersey  .. 


New  Mexico  . 


New  York... 


By  governor. 


By  governor.. 


Board   of  Re- 
gents  


N.Carolina...  By  people.. 


5,000  il.  To  employ  assistant  superintendent 
and  clerks.  2.  To  be  secretary  of 
Board  of  Education.  3.  To  decide 
controversies.  4.  To  appoint  county 
superintendents  in  case  of  vacancies. 
5.  To  withhold  state  money  for  ne- 
glect of  duty.  6.  To  apportion  school 
funds. 


2.400 


17,500 


N.  Dakota  ... 


Ohio. 


By  people. 


by  people.. 


3,000 


2,000 


2,000 


1.  To  have  general  supervision  of  pub- 
lic education.  2.  To  procure  uniform- 
ity in  reports.  3.  To  have  general 
supervision  of  official  records  of  any 
district.  4.  To  suspend  county  su- 
perintendents for  neglect  of  duty. 
5.  To  prescribe  and  cause  to  be  pre- 
pared in  English  and  Spanish  all 
necessary  forms  and  blanks.  6.  To 
be  secretary  of  Board  of  Education. 

L.  To  be  ex  officio  a  regent  of  State 
University,  a  trustees  of  Cornell  Un- 
iversity, and  of  state  asylum.  2.  To 
submit  annual  report  to  Legislature. 

3.  To   grant   and   revoke   certificates. 

4.  To  appoint  times  and  places  of 
holding  examinations.  5.  To  remove 
county  commissioners  for  neglect  of 
duty.  6.  To  withhold  public  money 
from  districts  for  not  obeying  law. 
7.  To  prepare  and  distribute  blank 
forms.  8.  To  apportion  school  money. 

1.      To   report   biennially   to   Governor. 

2.  To  publish  and  distribute  school 
laws  annually.  3.  To  construe  and 
enforce  school  law.  4.  To  hold  in- 
stitutes. 5.  To  prescribe  course  of 
study  in  public  high  schools.  6.  To 
prescribe  plans  for  school  houses, 
which  must  be  followed.  7.  To  act 
as  secretary  of  State  Board  of  Edu- 
cation. 

1.  To  have  general  supervision  of 
schools.  2.  To  be  ex  officio  member 
of  board  of  university,  normal  schoo' 
boards  and  high  school  boards.  3. 
To  furnish  school  supplies  and  es- 
tablish circulating  libraries.  4.  To 
issue  and  revoke  certificates.  '5.  To 
prescribe  course  of  study  for  public 
and  normal  schools.  6.  To  prescribe 
rules  and  regulations  for  teachers' 
institutes.  7.  To  advise  county  su- 
perintendents. 8.  To  keep  record 
of  official  acts.  9.  To  cause  school 
law  to  be  published  at  least  once 
in  two  years. 

1.  To  visit  annually  each  judicial  dis- 
trict.     2.   To  supervise  school  funds. 

3.  To  prescribe  rules  and  regula- 
tions for  all  reports.  4.  To  distri- 
bute school  laws.  5.  To  report  an- 
nually to  either  Governor  or  General 
Assembly.  6.  To  require  reports 
from   private   schools. 


28 


Table  Showing  the  Manner  of  Ejection,  Etc. — Continued. 


State.        i      Election.        Term. 


Powers  and  ^uties. 


Oklahoma  ....  By  people . . 


Oregon By  people 


Pennsylvania. 


Rhode  Island . 


S.  Carolina.. . 


S.  Dakota. 


Tennessee. 


Texas By  people... 


By  governor.. 


By  board 


By  people. 


By  people 


By  governor. 


Utah I  By  people....  i 


2,500 


3,000 


5,000 


4,000 


1,900 


1,800 


2,500 


2,500 


2,400 


1.  To  apportion  school  funds.  2.  To 
publish  school  laws  once  in  two 
years.  3.  To  visit  each  county  once 
a  year.  4.  To  report  biennially  to 
Governor.  5.  To  act  as  president  of 
Board  of  Education,  Board  of  Nor- 
mal School  Regents,  and  Regents 
for  Deaf  and  Dumb  school.  6.  To 
be  member  of  board  of  regents  for 
colored   A.    &   JM.    university. 

1.  To  visit  each  county  annually.  2. 
To  attend  county  institutes.  3.  To 
provide  uniform  series  of  blanks. 
4.  To  act  as  secretary  of  State 
Board.  5.  To  decide  cases  of  appeal. 
6.  To  hold  State  Teachers'  Associa- 
tion. 7.  To  report  biennially  to 
General    As.sembly. 

1.  To  have  general  supervision  of 
public  schools.  2.  To  appoint  trus- 
tees for  state  normal  schools.  3. 
To  conduct  examination  for  gradu- 
ation in  Normal  schools.  4.  To  ap- 
point State  Board  of  Examiners.  5. 
To  sign  all  orders  of  State  Treas- 
urer. 6.  To  submit  annual  report 
to  Legislature. 

1.  To  act  as  secretary  of  Board  of 
Education.  2.  To  advise  with  school 
officers.  3.  To  visit  and  Inspect 
schools.  4.  To  arrange  for  and  con- 
duct institutes.  5.  To  secure  uni- 
formity of  text  books.  6.  To  appor- 
tion school  funds.  7.  To  prepare 
and  publi.sh  program  for  Arbor  Day. 
8.   To  decide  appeals. 

1.  To  have  general  supervision  of 
schools.  2.  To  secure  uniformity  of 
text  books.  3.  To  furnish  school 
registers  and  blanks.  4.  To  report 
to  General  Assembly  at  each  regu- 
lar session. 

1.  To  meet  county  superintendents 
annually.   2.  To  inspect  high  schools. 

3.  To  re^iort  biennially  to  Governor. 

4.  To  supervise  institutes.  5.  To  hold 
examinations.  6.  To  grant  and  re- 
\oke  certificates. 

1.  To  inspect  schools.  2.  To  see  that 
laws  are  executed.  3.  To  prepare 
and  distribute  blank  forms.  4.  To 
have  school  laws  printed  and  dis- 
tributed. 5.  To  appoint  examiners. 
6.  To  require  annual  reports  from 
county  superintendents.  7.  To  re- 
port  iaiennially  to   Governor. 

1.  To  hear  knd  determine  appeal.s. 
2.  To  prescribe  suitable  blanks  for 
reports.  3.  To  file  all  reports  and 
documents  transmitted  to  him.  4. 
To  advise  and  counsel  with  school 
officers.  5.  To  address  institutes 
and  normal   schools. 

1  To  apportion  school  money.  2.  To 
prepare  and  transmit  suitable  blanks 
to  school  officers.  3.  To  visit  each 
county  once  a  year.  4.  To  report 
biennially  to  Legislature.  5.  To  call 
annually  a  convention  of  city  and 
county    superintendents. 


29 


Table  Showing  the  Manner  of  Election,  Etc. — Coucluded. 


State. 


Election.        Term.       Salary 


Powers  and  Duties. 


Vermont. 


Virginia 


Washington .. 


W.  Virginia  .. 


Wiscoasin 


By  G.  Ass'm'y 


By  people.... 


By  people 


By  people.... 


By  people. 


Wyoming By  people 


2,000 


3,500 


3,000 


3,000 


5,000 


2,000 


1.  To  hold  institutes  and  summer 
schools.  2.  To  report  to  General  As- 
sembly. 3.  To  issue  and  distribute 
circulars  among  school  offlcers.  4. 
To  fix   standard  of  examination. 

1.  To  see  that  school  laws  are  faith- 
fully executed.  2.  To  prepare  suit- 
able blanks  for  school  officers.  3. 
To  inspect  schools.  4.  To  decide  ap- 
peals. 5.  To  report  annually  to 
Board  of  Education.  6.  To  appor- 
tion school  funds. 

1.      To   report   biennially   to   Governor. 

2.  To  prepare  and  distribute  blanks. 

3.  To  visit  various  counties.  4.  To 
submit  monthly  statements  to  audi- 
tor for  traveling'  expenses.  5.  To 
cause  school  laws  to  be  printed  and 
distributed.  6.  To  act  as  ex  officio 
president  of  Board  of  Education.  7. 
To  hold  annual  county  superintend- 
ents' convention.  8.  To  decide  points 
of  law  submitted   to  him. 

1.  To  apportion  school  fund.  2.  To 
secure    uniform    system    of    reports. 

3.  To  correspond  with  educators  and 
school  officers  abroad,  and  acquaint 
himself  with  the  various  systems 
of  schools.  4.  To  report  annually 
to  Governor.  5.  To  issue  certifi- 
cates. 6.  To  have  charge  of  all 
county  institutes  and  to  appoint  in- 
structors. 

1.  To  stimulate  interest  in  education. 

2.  To  prepare  list  of  books  for  school 
libraries.  3.  To  attend  educational 
meetings.  4.  To  secure  uniformity 
of  reports.  5.  To  decide  appeals. 
6.  To  apportion  school  funds.  7.  To 
report  biennially  to  Governor.  8.  To 
supervise  institutes.  9.  To  grant 
and  revoke  certificates.  10.  To  be 
ex  officio  member  of  Board  of  Uni- 
versity Regents  and  Board  of  Nor- 
mal Regents  and  president  of  Min- 
ing  School    Board. 

1.  To  file  all  public  documents  each 
year  separately.  2.  To  prepare  suit- 
able forms  for  reports  and  distribute 
to  officers.  3.  To  make  rules  and 
regulations  to  carry  law   into  effect. 

4.  To  distribute  school  fund.  5.  To 
issue  certificates.  6.  To  act  as  sec- 
retary of  Board  of  Charities  and 
Reform. 


REFERENCES. 

Dutton,  Samuel  Train,  and  Snedden.  David.  The  Slate  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction.  In  their-  The  Administration  of  Public  Education  in  the  United 
States.     New  York.  The  Macmillan  Company.   1908.     p.   68-72. 

Fellow.   Henry  C.     State  supervision.     In  his  A  Study   in   School   Supervision.     To- 
peka.  Kansas,  Crane  &  Company,   1896.     p.   14-43. 
States,   with  official   title  of  chief  executive  of  education,   p.    19-43. 

First  conference   of  state   superintendents   with  the   United   States    Bureau   of   Edu- 
cation.  February   24,    1908. 
Western  Journal  of  Education,  13;   270-71,  May,  1908. 


30 

Higljee,  E.  E.  How  a  State  superintendent  can  best  advance  popular  education. 
In  National  education  association.  Department  of  superintendence.  Proceed- 
ings, 1884.  Wasliinston.  Government  printing  office,  1884.  p.  76-80.  (United 
States.     Bureau  of  lOducation.     Circular  of  information   4,    1884.) 

Indiana.  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction.  State  superintendent  of  pub- 
lic instruction.  1)1  his  Education  in  Indiana.  Indianapolis.  Wm.  B.  Burford. 
1904.  p.  19-39.  With  specimens  of  the  bulletins  issued  monthly  to  Indiana 
teadiers.  •  ... 

Inglis.  Samuel  il.  What  Should  the  State  Superintendents  dc>  at  the  Summer 
Institutes?  In  National  education  association.  Journal  ol  proceedings  and 
addresses,   1897.     p.   301-306. 

Joyner.  J.  T.  The  Relation  of  the  State  Superintendent  to  the  County  Superin- 
tendent. In  National  education  association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  ad- 
dresses,  1908.     p.   269-71. 

Fickard,  Josiah  Little.  The  State  Superintendent.  In  his  School  Supervision. 
New  York,  D.  Appleton  and  Company,  1890,  p.  23-28.  (International  educa- 
tion series,  edited  by  W.  T.  Harris,     v.  15.) 

SchaelTer,  Nathan  C.  Powers  and  Duties  of  State  Superintendents,  /n  National 
education  association.     Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,   189.5.     p.   350-57. 

Webster.  William  Clarence.  Appellate  Jurisdiction  of  State  Superintendents  and 
State  Boards  of  Education.  In  his  Recent  centralizing  tendencies  in  State 
educational  administration.  New  York,  Columbia  University,  1897.  p.  73-78. 
(Columbia  Universitv.  Studies  in  liistory,  economics  and  public  law.  v.  8, 
No.   2.) 


31 


THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 


The  tendency  toward  the  completion  of  State  educational  systems  by 
the  creation  of  State  boards  of  education  seems  to  be  general.  Thirty- 
three  of  the  forty-eight  states  and  territories  already  have  such  a  board 
or  its  equivalent.  Of  the  six  states  which  recently  appointed  educational 
commissions  to  recommend  reforms  in  their  school  systems,  three, 
namely,  Kansas,  Kentucky  and  Washington,  already  have  state  boards  of 
education.  The  commissions  of  the  other  three  states,  namely,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Iowa  and  Illinois*  recommend  the  creation  of  such  boards. 

The  first  state  to  establish  an  educational  board  with  state  functions 
was  Xew  York.  In  1784  the  board  known  as  the  regents  of  the  univer- 
sity of  the  state  of  Xew  York  was  created  and  vested  with  the  power,  in 
addition  to  its  control  of  Columbia  College,  "to  found  schools  and  col- 
leges in  any  part  of  the  state."  The  next  state  t6  establish  any  thing 
like  a  state  board  of  education  was  North  Carolina.  In  1825,  a  fund 
having  been  created  for  the  establishment  and  support  of  schools,  the 
governor,  the  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court,  the  speakers  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Commons,  and  the  treasurer  of  the  state,  were  con- 
stituted a  board  to  be  known  as  the  president  and  directors  of  the  literary 
fund,  for  the  promotion  of  learning  and  the  instruction  of  youth.  Ten 
years  afterward  Missouri  constituted  the  governor,  the  auditor,  the 
treasurer  and  the  attorney  general  a  state  board  of  education,  and  this 
seems  to  be  the  first  use  of  the  name. 

The  name  applied  to  the  state  hoards  at  the  head  of  the  state  educa- 
tional systems  varies.  In  twenty-five  states  and  territories  it  is  called 
"State  Board  (or  Territorial  Board)  of  Education."  In  Colorado,  Mas- 
sachusetts, Mississippi  and  Missouri,  it  is  called  simply  board  of  educa- 
tion. In  Louisiana  the  corporate  name  is  "Board  of  Education  for  the 
state  of  Louisiana,"  in  New  York  it  is  "Board  of  Regents  of  the  Univer- 
sitv  of  the  state  of  New  York,"  in  Idaho  it  is  "Board  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion." 

Some  of  the  states  liaving  a  board  of  education  liave  also  anotlier 
educational  board  with  state  functions,  some  of  them  more  than  one. 
New  Jersey,  Texas  and  Virginia,  for  instance,  Imve  each  a  "State 
Board  of  Examiners."     Alabama,   Montana   and    Oivgon   have  each   a 


•The  Board  of  Education  of  the  State  of  Illinois  should  not  be  mistaken  for  a 
State  Board  of  Education.  It  is  merely  the  board  of  trustees  of  one  of  the  five 
State  normal  schools. 


32 

"State  Text  Book  Commission,"  Washington  has  a  "Board  of  Higher 
Education/'  Missouri  a  ''State  Library  Board,"  and  Utah,  in  addition 
to  her  state  board  of  education,  a  legally  constituted  State  School 
Committee  to  Formulate  a  State  Course  of  Study.  Most  of  the  states 
which  have  no  state  board  of  education  have  some  kind  of  a  board  with 
limited  state  educational  functions.  Iowa,  Ohio,  Wisconsin  and  Wyom- 
ing have  state  boards  of  examiners.  Minnesota  and  Xorth  Dakota  have 
state  high  school  boards,  Nebraska  a  board  of  educational  lands  and 
funds.  South  Dakota  a  board  of  school  and  public  lands  and  also  a  state 
board  of  regents  of  education  which  has  control  of  the  educational 
institutions  which  are  sustained  wholly  or  in  part  by  the  state.  Ver- 
mont luis  a  state  board  of  library  commissioners,  and  also  a  board  of 
normal  school  commissioners  which  has  supervision  of  the  normal  schools 
of  the  state.  Pennsylvania  has  thirteen  examining  boards  for  the  thir- 
teen normal  schools  of  the  state,  but  these  should  hardly  be  included 
among  state  educational  boards. 

Excluding  Pennsylvania,  forty-two  states  and  territories  have  some 
form  of  educational  l)oard  with  state  functions.  The  only  states  besides 
Pennsylvania  that  are  wholly  without  sucli,  an  educational  agency  are 
Alabanui,  Arkansas,  Illinois,  Maine  and  New  Hampshire. 

In  most  cases,  however,  there  is  a  preponderance  of  educators  in  the 
membership  of  the  boards  having  the  most  extensive  powers  and  duties. 
There  are  three  women  on  the  board  of  Massachusetts.  In  some  of  the 
states  attention  is  paid  to  the  element  of  locality  in  the  selection  of 
members.  In  New  Jersey,  Louisiana  and  West  Virginia,  each  congres- 
sional district  must  be  represented.  In  Ehode  Island  there  must  be  two 
members  from  Providence  county  and  one  from  each  of  the  other  coun- 
ties. In  three  states  at  least  the  board  must  be  bi-partisan.  The  law 
of  New  Jersey  provides  that  the  board  "shall  consist  of  two  members 
from  each  congressional  district,  who  shall  not  be  members  of  the  same 
political  party  and  who  shall  not  reside  in  the  same  county  except  where 
a  congi'essional  district  shall  lie  wholly  within  one  county."  Of  the  six 
members  appointed  by  the  governor  of  Maryland  two  "shall  be  from  the 
political  party  which  at  the  last  preceding  election  for  governor  re- 
ceived next  to  the  highest  number  of  votes,"  and  in  West  Virginia 
not  more  than  three  of  the  five  members  appointed  may  be  from  the 
same  political  party.  It  may  be  recalled  in  this  connection  that  the 
criteria  followed  in  selecting  the  members  of  the  first  Massachusetts 
board  were  religious,  political  and  professional.  The  element  of  locality 
was  also  considered,  Init  it  was  regarded  as  of  minor  importance. 

Ter:m  of  Office. 

The  terms  of  office  of  tlie  members  of  the  different  l)oards  are  as 
various  as  the  number  of  members.  In  Kentucky  and  Washington  mem- 
bers serve  two  years;  in  lufliana  and  Ehode  Island,  three  years;  in  Con- 
necticut, Montana,  South  Carolina,  I' tali  and  Virginia,  four  years;  in 
Xew  Jersey,  New  Mexico  and  West  Virginia,  five  years ;  in  Maryland, 
Michigan  and  Tennessee,  six  years;  in  Massachusetts,  eight  years,  and 
in  New  York,  eleven  years.  The  most  effective  boards  have  long  terms 
and  few  contemporary  changes. 


33 

Compensation. 

The  compensiition  of  members  of  st;ite  boards  of  education  is  nominal. 
The  Massachusetts  board  provides  that  the  "incidental  expenses  of 
the  board  and  the  traveling  and  other  necessary  expenses  of  the  mem- 
bers thereof  incurred  in  the  performance  of  their  official  duties,  shall  be 
paid  by  the  commonwealth."  This  is  about  the  practice  in  most  of 
the  states.  Kansas  limits  the  amount  paid  for  the  actual  expenses 
of  the  board  to  $300.00  per  annum.  Indiana  allows  members  $5.00 
per  day  while  actually  engaged  in  the  duties  of  their  office  and  five 
cents  per  mile  for  necessary  travel. 

Membekship. 

The  number  of  members  of  state  boards  of  education  varies  from 
three  to  twenty.  Eight  boards  have  three  members,  four  boards  four 
members,  four,  five;  one,  six;  four,  seven;  five,  eight;  two,  nine;  two, 
ten ;  three,  eleven,  and  one  twenty.  The  states  having  boards  of  four 
members  are  Michigan,  Mississippi,  Missouri  and  Oklahoma;  those 
having  boards  of  five  members  are  Florida,  Georgia,  Utah  and  Wasli- 
ington.  The  board  of  West  Virginia  has  six  members.  Connecticut, 
Kentucky,  North  Carolina  and  New  Mexico  have  boards  of  seven 
members.  In  the  boards  of  Arizona,  Maryland,  Khode  Island,  Ten- 
nessee and  Virginia  there  are  eight  members.  California  and  South 
Carolina  have  boards  of  nine  memljers.  In  those  of  Louisiana  and  Mas- 
sachusetts there  are  ten,  in  those  of  Indiana,  Montana  and  Xew  York, 
eleven,  and  New  Jersey  has  a  board  of  twenty  members.  Tlie  average 
number  of  members  in  the  thirty-three  state  boards  of  education  is  about 
seven. 

All  the  boards  but  those  of  Xew  York  and  New  Jersey  have  mem- 
bers ex  officio.  The  number  of  such  members  varies  from  one  in  Micl\- 
igan  and  ^\'est  Virginia  to  eight  in  Indiana  and  nine  in  California. 
Thirteen  boards  have  ex  officio  members  only.  In  eleven  states  and  two 
territories  the  governor  appoints  two  or  more  members,  in  Arizona  and 
Ftali,  tAvo;  in  Indiana  and  Kansas,  three;  in  New  Mexico,  five;  in 
Maryland  and  Tennessee,  six;  in  Louisiana  and  South  Carolina,  seven; 
in  j\lapsachusetts  and  Montana,  eight,  and  in  New  Jersey  twenty.  In 
Arizona,  N^ew  Mexico,  Washington  and  Indiana  the  governor  is  con- 
fined in  his  choice  to  a  list  of  eligibles.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Senate 
whieli  in  Virginia  elects  three  members.  In  Oklalioma  a  bill  is  to  be 
introduced  that  will  change  the  composition  of  the  state  board  from 
the  governor,  secretary  of  state,  attorney  general  and  state  superinten- 
dent to  the  superintendent,  president  of  the  state  university,  president 
of  the  A.  and  M.  college,  and  two  otlier  members  to  be  appointed  by 
the  governor  from  a  list  of  ten  eligibles  selected  by  the  state  superin- 
tendent. In  Connecticut  four  of  the  seven  members,  and  in  "Rhode 
Island  six  of  the  eight  members,  are  elected  by  tlie  General  As'^embly. 
The  three  members  of  the  Michigan  board  are  elected  by  the  p'-ople,  and 
in  West  Virginia  five  of  the  six  members  are  a])])oiiited  bv  the  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction. 
—3  E  C 


34 

As  to  the  personnel  of  the  various  boards  of.  education,  those  of 
Kansas  (seven  members),  Washington  (five  members),  and  West 
Virginia  (six  members),  are  composed  wholly  of  persons  engaged  in 
educational  work.  Washington  might  possibly  be  an  exception,  but 
hardly  so,  since  the  appointees  must  be  four  suitable  persons  holding 
life  diplomas  issued  by  authority  of  the  state,  two  of  whom  must  be 
actually  engaged  in  teaching  in  the  common  schools.  In  Arizona  six 
of  the  eight  members,  in  New  Mexico  six  of  the  seven,  in  California 
eight  of  the  nine,  in  Indiana  ten  of  the  eleven  and  in  Virginia  four  of 
the  six  members,  must  be  persons  engaged  in  school  work.  There  is 
no  provision  in  the  laws  of  Connecticut,  Louisiana,  Massachusetts,  Mary- 
land, Montana,  New  Jersey,  South  Carolina  or  Tennessee  in  regard 
to  the  professional  character  of  the  appointive  members  of  the  board. 
Utah  provides  that  its  two  annointive  members  shall  be  "persons  of  large 
experience  and  eminent  professional  standing." 

Ten  of  the  states  seem  to  accept  the  theory  that  reforms  proceed 
from  without  and  have  left  the  way  open  for  the  appointment  upon 
their  boards  of  education  of  those  who  are  not  engaged  in  school  work. 

Powers  and  Duties. 

There  is  a  wide  range  in  the  state  boards  of  education  as  to  their 
powers  and  duties.  In  some  cases  they  are  few  and  relatively  unim- 
portant. The  board  of  Texas,  for  instance,  merely  apportions  the  avail- 
able school  funds  among  the  counties,  cities  and  towns.  The  functions 
of  the  Idalio  board  are  limited  to  issuing  and  revoking  certificates.  In 
several  of  the  states,  however,  the  state  board  of  education  is  clothed 
with  all  the  powers  and  duties  necessary  to  give  it  the  dignity  and  im- 
portance which  should  attach  to  a  board  ostensibly  in  control  of  .the 
-educational  affairs  of  a  state.  They  have  general  supervision  and  con- 
trol of  the  public  schools,  and  in  certain  cases,  of  all  educational  in- 
terests. They  have  the  management  of  the  whole  or  some  part  of  the 
state  school  fund,  the  examination  and  certification  of  teachers,  the 
recommendation  or  selection  of  a  uniform  series  of  text  books.  The 
tendency  plainly  is  to  increase  the  powers  and  duties  vested  in  the  board. 
This  tendency  is  revealed  by  recent  legislation.  The  extent  to  which  it 
has  been  brought  will  be  more  plainly  seen  if  we  examine  the  scope  of 
the  functions  of  a  few  of  the  more  tvnical  boards.  For  the  purpose  of 
this  examination  we  may  select  the  board  of  Massachusetts,  one  of  the 
oldest  in  the  country,  the  board  of  New  York  which  is  perhaps  the  most 
powerful,  the  board  of  Connecticut,  which  lias  tlie  widest  ranse  of  powers 
and  duties,  and  the  West  Virginia  ])oard,  which  is  the  one  most  recently 
created. 

The  Massachusetts  Board. 

The  Massachusetts  board  of  education  originated  in  1837.  Horace 
Mann  was  its  first  secretary.  It  consists  of  ten  members,  the  governor, 
lieutenant  governor,  and  eight  members  appointed  by  the  governor. 
The  number  of  its  members,  the  method  of  appointment  and  the  power 
of  the  board  to  elect  a  secretary  are  the  same  todav  as  at  the  beginning. 


35 

Some  attempts  were  made  soon  after  its  establishment  to  abolish  the 
board,  but  its  effectiveness  has  long  since  been  generally  admitted.  As 
at  first  constituted  the  board  had  only  duties,  no  powers.  It  was  ex- 
pected to  prepare  an  abstract  of  the  school  returns  and  to  make  an 
annual  report  to  the  Legislature  concerning  the  condition  and  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  common  school  system  and  to  suggest  means  of  improv- 
ing it.  Today  the  board  takes  and  holds  in  trust  for  the  common- 
wealth any  grant  of  land,  gift  or  bequest  of  money  or  other  personal 
property  made  to  it  for  educational  purposes.  It  prescribes  the  form 
of  census,  of  registers  kept  in  the  schools  and  of  returns  made  by 
school  committees.  It  has  general  management  of  the  state  normal 
schools  and  of  model  and  practice  schools  and  of  schools  for  the  deaf 
and  the  blind.  It  receives  applications  of  teachers  for  positions  and 
furnishes  information  in  regard  to  applicants  on  the  request  of  the 
superintendent.  It  determines  the  length  of  institutes  and  may  apply 
not  more  than  $350.00  to  meet  the  expense  of  an  institute.  It  may  pre- 
scribe directions  for  testing  the  sight  and  hearing  of  school  children, 
and  it  furnishes  school  committees  with  suitable  rules  of  instruction, 
test  cards,  blanks,  record  books  and  other  useful  appliances  for  carry- 
ing out  the  purposes  of  the  law  in  regard  to  medical  in^;pection.  Other 
powers  and  duties  necessary  to  the  effective  supervision  and  promotion 
of  the  schools  of  the  state  are  devolved  upon  it.  Hinsdale  in  speaking 
of  the  Massachusetts  board  in  his  "Horace  Mann  and  the  Common 
School  Kevival  in  the  United  States"  (page  108)  says,  "It  has  always 
stood  for  safety,  at  least,  if  not  for  brilliant  initiative.  Still  further,  it 
has  no  doubt  provided,  all  things  considered,  a  better  state  educational 
administration  than  the  people  would  have  directly  provided  for  them- 
selves, voting  at  the  popular  election.  The  board  has  also  proved  a  very 
competent  authority  to  manage,  with  the  help  of  its  secretan%  the  state 
normal  schools."  The  present  secretary  in  speaking  of  the  efficiency 
of  the  board  in  collecting  information  says :  "It  can  by  asking  its  agents 
have  by  return  mail  a  detailed  description  of  the  most  obscure  school,  its 
numbers,  its  house,  its  teacher,  its  work — a  nliotograpli  taken  within 
two  years  and  in  the  agent's  note  book.'"'  In  another  place  he  says: 
"The  board  has  been  almost  the  sole  instrumentality  in  securing  help- 
ful legislation  and  in  protecting  the  school  from  hostile  enactments. 
It  has  also  had  a  powerful  uplifting  and  broadening  influence." 

The  Connecticut  Board. 

The  state  board  of  education  of  Connecticut  was  established  in  1838. 
It  is  similar  to  that  of  Massachusetts.  It  consists  of  seven  members,  the 
governor,  lieutenant  governor,  secretary  of  state  ex  officio  and  four  mem- 
bers appointed  by  the  General  Assembly.  Like  the  board  of  Massachu- 
setts, it  appoints  the  chief  school  officer  of  the  state,  but  its  other  power> 
and  duties  are  even  wider  than  those  of  Massachusetts.  It  prepares  and 
distributes  to  every  school  an  outline  of  ---estions  and  suggestions  in 
regard  to  the  duties  of  citizenship.-  It  grants  certificates  of  qualifi- 
cation to  teachers  and  revokes  them.  It  has  the  same  power  as  the 
Massachusetts    board  in  regard  to  medical    inspection.      It    maintains 


36 

normal  sclwols  as  seminaries  in  training  teachers  in  the  art  of  in- 
structing and  governing  in  the  public  schools  of  the  state.  It  deter- 
mines tlie  number  of  normal  schools  and  the  number  of  pupils  in  each 
normal  school.  Among  its  other  powers  and  duties  are  the  following: 
To  enforce  the  law  relating  to  attendance  at  evening  schools,  and  to 
employment  of  children;  to  inv^estigate  and  grant  certificates  of  age  in 
certain  cases;  to  appoint  public  library  committees;  to  order  sanitary 
changes  in  school  houses;  to  examine  teacher's  for  county  homes  and 
appoint  acting  visitors  for  such  schools;  to  relieve  towns  from  main- 
taining evening  schools;  to  appoint  agents  to  act  as  superintendents 
in  certain  towns;  to  approve  high  schools  in  certain  cases;  to  examine 
incorporated  high  schools  and  academies;  to  anTirove  high  schools  to 
which  children  are  conveyed ;  to  approve  superintendents  in  certain 
cases;  to  apply  to  the  comptroller  for  state  average  attendance  grant; 
and  to  make  estimates  and  reports. 

The  Xew  York  Board. 

The  New  York  board  is  exceptional.  South  Dakota  has  a  state  board 
of  regents  of  eiducation  which  has  control  of  the  educational  institu- 
tions sustained  wholly  or  in  part  by  the  state.  The  functions  of  the 
N"ew  York  board  are  much  more  extensive. 

The  board  of  regents  of  the  University  of  the  state  of  ^ew  York 
is  composed  of  eleven  members  who  are  elected  by  the  legislature  to 
serve  for  a  period  of  eleven  years.  No  officers  of  any  of  the  incor- 
porated educational  institutions  of  the  state  are  eligible  to  member- 
ship. There  are  no  ex  officio  members,  but  the  commissioner  of  educa- 
tion acts  as  its  executive  officer.  The  university  of  the  State  of  New 
York  is  a  corporation  created  in  1784.  It  includes  all  the  incor- 
porated higher  educational  institutions  of  the  state.  The  state  library 
and  the  state  museum  are  departments  of  the  university  and  the  board 
may  establish  other  departments  if  they  are  deemed  necessary  to  the 
discharge  of  its  duties.  It  has  power  to  exclude  from  membership 
any  institution  failing  to  comply  wdth  the  law  of  the  state  or  the  rules 
of  the  board.  It  has  charge  of  private  academies  and  in  some  measure 
of  the  public  secondary  schools  as  well  as  of  all  the  higher  institu- 
tions. All  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  board  in  relation  to  the  super- 
vision of  elementary  and  secondary  schools  including  all  schools,  ex- 
cept colleges,  technical  and  professional  schools,  are  devolved  upon 
the  commissioner  of  education,  who  is  elected  by  the  board.  The 
board  of  New  York  has  powder  to  establish  such  rules  and  regulations 
as  are  necessary  to  carry  into  effect  the  statutes  of  the  state  relating  to 
education.  It  cooperates  with  other  agencies  in  bringing  within  the 
reach  of  the  people  of  the  state,  young  and  old,  the  largest  educational 
opportunities  by  stimulating  interest,  recommending  methods,  desig- 
nating suitable  teachers  and  lecturers,  and  by  lending  books  and  ap- 
paratus. It  establishes  in  the  academies  of  the  imiversity  examina- 
tions in  studies,  furnishes  a  suitable  standard  for  o-raduation  from 
academies   and  of  admission  to  colleges    and    grants    certificates    and 


37 

diplomas  to  those  who  pass  such  examinations.  It  controls  the  whole 
matter  of  granting  honorary  degrees  and  diplomas.  The  board  has 
power  to  incornorate  any  university,  college,  academy,  library,  museum, 
or  other  institution  for  the  promotion  of  science,  literature,  art,  history 
or  other  departments  of  knowledge.  The  unification  act  of  1904  de"- 
stroying  the  division  of  power  formerb'  existing  between  the  board 
of  regents  and  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  has  provided 
]Srew  York  with  an  educational  organization  more  elaborate  than  is  to 
be  found  in  any  other  state.  It  has  been  criticised  as  illustrating  too 
great  centralization  of  authority.  It  is  perhaps  too  early  to  determine 
whether  it  is  superior  to  the  other  types  of  board.  "There  can  be  no 
doubt,"  says  President  Butler,  "about  the  general  tendency  being 
strongly  towards  greater  centralization.  Not  only  are  its  advantages 
quite  apparent,  but  the  overwhelming  current  of  legislation  and  of 
the  decisions  of  the  courts  is  making  it  imperative.  These  are  prac- 
tically in  accord,  and  are  to  the  effect  that  in  each  state  the  school 
system  is  not  local,  but  general;  not  individual  schools  controlled  by 
separate  communities,  but  a  closely  related  system  of  schools  which 
has  become  a  state  system  and  is  entirely  under  state  authority.  Local 
school  officials  are  now  uniformly  held  to  be  agents  of  the  state  for 
the  administration  of  a  state  system  of  education."* 

The  Califorxia  Board. 

Another  type  of  board  is  illustrated  by  that  of  California.  It  was 
originally  composed  of  the  governor,  sunerintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion and  the  president  of  the  state  normal  school.  But  in  1894  the 
president  of  the  Uliiversity  of  California  and  the  professor  of  educa- 
tion in  that  institution  were  added.  The  governor  is  the  r) resident  of 
the  board  and  the  superintendent  is  its  secretary.  Among  the  powers 
and  duties  of  the  board  are  the  following:  To  adopt  rules  and  regula- 
tions not  inconsistent  with  the  laws  of  the  state  for  its  own  govern- 
ment, and  for  the  government  of  the  public  schools  and  district  school 
libraries;  to  prescribe  the  credentials  upon  which  persons  may  be 
granted  certificates  to  teach  in  the  high  schools  of  the  state;  to  grant 
life  diplomas  of  four  grades — high  school,  grammar  school,  kinder- 
garten-primary and  special;  to  revoke  or  suspend  diplomas  for  im- 
moral or  unprofessional  conduct;  to  designate  some  educational  monthly 
journal  as  the  official  organ  of  the  department  of  public  instruction. 
The  superintendent  of  California  describes  this  board  as  effective,  par- 
ticularly in  raising  the  standard  of  teachers. 

The  state  board  of  California  was  provided  for  in  the  constitution 
of  the  state.  An  amendment  to  the  constitution  has  been  proposed, 
has  l)een  acted  upon  favorably  by  both  houses  of  the  legislature  and 
will  be  submitted  to  the  people  during  the  present  year,  providing  that 
the  l)oard  shall  consist  of  the  governor,  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  a  representative  of  the  state  university,  selected  by  its 
president,  a  representative  of  the    Leland    Stanford,    Jr..    university, 


•Education  in  the  United  States,  vol.   1,  p.   21. 


38 

selected  by  its  president,  a  representative  of  the  state  normal  schools, 
selected  bv  the  presidents  thereof,  a  practical  business  man  not  directly 
connected  with  any  school,  selected  by  the  frovernor,  a  representative  of 
the  rural  scliools,  selected  by  the  county  superintendents  at  the  super- 
intendents' biennial  convention,  and  a  representative  of  the  polytechnic 
schools,  selected  by  the  principals  of  the  polytechnic  high  schools  re- 
ceiving state  aid. 

By  this  amendment  the  board  is  given  power  to  compile  or  adopt 
a  uniform  system  of  text  books  for  use  in  the  day  and  evening  elemen- 
tary schools  throughout  the  state. 

The  West  Virginia  Board. 

I  insert  a  brief  description  of  the  board  of  West  A^irginia  because 
it  is  the  one  most  recently  provided  for.  The  legislature  authorized 
it  in  March  of  the  present  year,  but  it  was  not  appointed  and  organized 
until  some  time  in  .June.  It  is  composed  of  the  state  superintendent, 
who  is  the  chairman,  and  five  other  persons  engaged  in  educational 
work,  appointed  by  him,  one  from  each  congressional  district  and  not 
more  than  three  from  the  same' political  party.  This  board  is  to  per- 
form the  duties  hitherto  performed  by  the  state  board  of  examiners 
and  is  to  prescribe  a  course  of  study  for  the  puljlic  schools  of  the 
state,  including  the  district  schools,  the  primary,  the  graded,  the  in- 
termediate and  the  high  schools,  and  define  the  relation  that  each  shall 
bear  to  the  others.  It  will  also  prescribe  and  publish  the  branches  in 
which  applicants  for  primary  teachers'  and  high  school  teachers'  certifi- 
cates shall  be  examined.  At  the  request  of  the  state  superintendent  it 
may  assist  in  the  preparation  of  questions  for  the  several  examinatiorws. 
It  is  to  gTant  state  professional  certificates,  one  class  good  for  twelve 
years  and  another  for  six  years.  The  recognition  of  certificates  from 
other  states  is  also  to  be  under  the  control  of  the  board.  The  state 
superintendent  of  West  Virginia  reports  that  he  has  been  working  for 
a  board  of  education  for  several  years  and  that  he  is  not  altogetlier 
satisfied  with  the  provision  that  has  been  made. 

Boards  Eecently  Eecommended. 

The  modern  tendency  towards  the  creation  of  State  boards  of  educa- 
tion with  large  powers  and  duties  is  still  better  illustrated  perhaps  by 
the  recommendations  of  the  various  educational  commissions  that  have 
recently  proposed  new  school  legislation.  The  commission  of  Pennsyl- 
vania urges  the  creation  of  a  board  of  education  of  seven  members  with 
the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  as  the  executive  officer.  The 
members  are  to  1)0  apnointed  by  the  governor,  by  and  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  two-thirds  of  the  Seu'^.te.  Three  of  the  members  mu'-'t  be 
successful  educators  of  high  standing,  connected  with  the  public  school 
system  of  the  commonwealth.  The  term  of  office  is  six  vears.  The 
powers  and  duties  prescribed  for  the  board  are  the  following:  To  re- 
port and  recommend  to  the  governor  and  the  General  Assembly  such 


39 

legislation  as  may  be  needed  to  make  the  public  schools  of  the  common- 
wealth more  efficient  and  useful;  to  equalize  through  special  appropri- 
ations for  this  purpose  or  otherwise  the  educational  advantages  of  the 
different  school  districts  of  the  commonwealth ;  to  inspect  and  requiro. 
reports  from  and  to  supervise  the  educational  work  in  institutions: 
wholly  or  partly  supported  by  the  state  which  are  not  supervised  by  the 
public  school  authorities;  to  prescribe  and  enforce  rules  and  regulations 
for  the  examination  of  teachejs  in  the  commonwealth  except  in  school 
districts  of  the  first  class-  to  encourage  and  promote  agricultural  educa- 
tion, art  education,  libraries,  ])ublic  lectures,  manual  training,  domestic 
science  and  such  educational  tvnes  of  vocational  and  practical  educa- 
tion as  the  needs  of  the  commonwealth  may  from  time  to  time  require; 
to  prepare  approved  lists  of  text  books  and  school  sunnlies;  to  prescribe 
rules  and  regulations  and  provide  for  the  sanitary  equipment  and  in- 
spection of  school  buildings  and  of  their  sanitary  equipment  and  to  take 
such  other  action  as  it  may  deem  necessary  and  expedient  to  promote 
the  physical  and  moral  welfare  of  the  children  of  the  public  schools; 
and  to  standardize  the  public  school  system,  to  provide  for  new  forms  of 
educational  effort,  and  in  general  to  take  such  action  as  may  be  neces- 
sary to  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  educational  system  of  the  common- 
wealth. 

The  commission  of  Iowa  has  recommended  the  creation  of  a  state 
board  of  education  which  shall  consist  of  the  state  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  who  is  to  be  the  president  of  the  board,  the  president 
of  the  state  university,  the  president  of  the  state  normal  school,  the 
president  of  the  state  college  of  agriculture  and  mechanic  arts,  one 
county  superintendent,  one  city  superintendent  and  one  member  of  the 
faculty  of  an  independent  liberal  arts  college  within  the  state.  The 
three  members  last  mentioned  are  to  be  appointed  by  the  governor. 
The  term  of  office  is  four  years.  The  powers  and  duties  recommended 
are  the  following:  To  elect  a  secretary  of  the  board  who  shall  receive 
a  salary  not  to  exceed  $1.200.00 ;  to  act  as  a  board  of  examiners  for  all 
legal  licenses  to  teach  in  the  public  schools  of  the  state  and  to  isue  uni- 
form county  certificates  and  states  certificates  of  the  grades  and  classes 
provided  for  by  law;  to  inspect  and  classify  all  public  schools  as  to 
classes  of  study,  teaching  force,  equipment  and  sanitation,  to  inspect 
and  supervise  the  school  libraries  provided  for  by  law,  to  inspect  and 
classify  such  higher  institutions  as  seek  accredited  relations  for  the 
purpose  of  the  certification  of  teachers:  to  annoint  a  state  supervisor 
of  schools;  to  act  under  the  direct  superAdsion  of  the  state  superinten- 
dent of  public  instruction. 

The  state  board  of  education  of  Washington  as  recommonded  by  the 
commission  is  to  consist  of  a  superintendent  of  public  instruction  who 
shall  be  ex  officio  president  of  the  board,  the  president  of  the  university 
of  Washington,  the  president  of  the  state  college  of  Washington,  the 
principal  of  one  of  the  state  normal  schools  elected  by  the  principals 
of  the  state  normal  schools,  and  four  persons  holding  life  diplomas 
issued  under  the  authority  of  the  state  and  actiyely  engaged  in  educa- 
tional work,  appointed  by  the  governor,  one  of  whom  shall  be  a  super- 


40 

intendeut  or  priucipal  of  a  school  of  a  district  of  tlie  first  class,  oue  a 
county  superintendent  of  schools,  one  a  principal  of  a  fully  accredited 
high  school,  one  a  representative  of  an  endowed  or  private  institution 
of  higher  learning  and  one  other  suitable  person.  The  term  of  oihce  is 
two  years.  The  deputy  superintendent  of  public  instruction  is  to  be  ex 
officio  secretary  of  the  board.  The  powers  and  duties  prescribed  are  as 
follows:  To  approve  the  preparatory  requirements  for  entrance  to  the 
university  of  \\  ashington,  the  state  college  of  Washington,  and  the  state 
normal  schools  of  Washington;  to  adopt  courses  for  the  state  normal 
schools,  for  the  department  of  education  of  the  university  of  Wash- 
ington and  the  state  college  of  Washington,  and  for  all  normal  training 
departments  of  higher  institutions  within  the  state  of  Washington  which 
may  be  accredited  and  wdiose  graduates  may  become  entitled  to  receive 
teachers'  life  diplomas  or  limited  professional  certificates,  to  investigate 
the  character  of  the  w(5rk  to  be  performed  as  a  condition  of  entrance  to 
and  graduation  from  normal  schools,  colleges,  universities  and  other 
institutions  of  higher  education  and  to  prepare  an  accredited  list  of 
those  higher  institutions  whose  graduates  may  be  awarded  certificates 
by  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  without  examination  ex- 
cept upon  the  state  manual  of  Washington,  to  prepare  an  accredited 
list  of  state  life  certificates  and  life  diplomas  issued  in  other  states  by  ex- 
amination upon  which  certificates  may  1)e  issued  in  Washington  without 
examination  except  upon  the  state  manual  of  Washington ;  to  examine  and 
accredit  secondary  schools  for  which  purpose  the  board  is  authorized  to 
elect  two  members;  to  prepare  an -outline,  course  or  courses  of  study 
for  the  primary,  grammar  and  high  school  departments  of  the  common 
schools,  and  to  prescribe  such  rules  for  the  general  government  of  the 
conunon  schools  as  shall  secure  regularity  of  attendance,  prevent  tru- 
ancy, secure  efficiency  and  promote  the  true  interests  of  the  common 
schools;  to  prepare  a  uniform  series  of  questions  to  be  used  by  the 
county  superintendents  in  the  examination  of  teachers,  to  determine 
rules  and  regulations  for  conducting  the  same  and  to  prepare  questions 
for  tlie  examination  of  applicants  for  state  elementary  certificates  and 
life  diplomas;  to  prepare  uniform  questions  for  the  examination  of 
pupils  of  the  schools  of  the  state,  completing  the  grammar  school  course 
of  study,  and  to  hear  and  decide  appeals  as  provided  bv  law. 

The  recommendations  of  the  Illinois  Eriucational  Commis'-inii  with 
respect  to  a  State  board  are  embodied  in  the  following  l)ill  Avhich  lias 
l^een  submitted  to  the  General  Assem.blv: 

A    BILL 

For  an  Act  to  create  a  State  Board  of  Education  and  to  define  its  poioers 

and  duties. 

Section-  1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  People  of  the  State  of  Illinois,  reprerented 
in  the  General  Assembly:  That  a  State  Board  of  Education  consisting  of 
eleven  member  is  hereby  authorized,  to  be  constituted  as  hereinafter  de- 
scribed. 

Sec.  2.  Such  a  board  shall  consist  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction who  shall  be  ex  officio  chairman  thereof;  the  chairman  of  the  edu-a- 
tional  committees  of  the   Senate  and  the  House,  each  of  whom  shall  be  a 


41 

member  ex  officio;  and  representatives  of  each  of  the  following  school  in- 
terests to  be  selected  by  a  board  consisting  of  the  Governor,  the  Chief  Justice 
of  the  Supreme  Court  and  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction:  The 
University  of  Illinois,  the  State  normal  schools,  the  non-State  colleges  and 
universities,  the  city  superintendency,  the  county  superintendency,  the  pub- 
lic high  schools;  and  two  eminent  citizens  of  the  State  not  directly  engaged 
in  educational  work.* 

Sec.  3.  On  or  before  the  second  Monday  of  January  next  after  their  ap- 
pointment the  appointive  members  shall  cast  lots  for  their  respective  terms 
of  office  for  two,  four,  six  and  eight  years;  and  biennially  thereafter  two 
members  shall  be  selected  by  the  appointive  board  as  successors  to  the  mem- 
bers whose  terms  of  office  then  expire,  which  successors  shall  serve  for  a 
term  of  eight  years.  In  case  of  a  vacancy  the  appointive  board  may  select 
a  member  to  serve  for  the  unexpired  term. 

Sec.  4.     Such  board  shall  have  the  power  and  it  shall  be  its  duty: 

1.  To  make  general  rules  for  the  supervision  and  inspection  of  the  pub- 
lic schools  of  the  State  required  by  law. 

2.  To  provide  suggestive  courses  of  study  for  rural,  elementary  and  high 
schools. 

3.  To  prepare  and  distribute  among  school  and  municipal  officers  sug- 
gestive plans  and  specifications  for  the  construction  and  equipment  of  school 
buildings. 

4.  To  fix  the  time  of  examinations  of  applicants  for  State  and  county 
teachers'  certificates,  to  prepare  all  questions  for  such  examinations,  to  grade 
all  examination  papers,  and  to  fix  the  standard  for  passing;  to  prescribe 
rules  for  the  recognition  of  certificates  from  other  States,  and  to  prescribe  ail 
rules  and  regulations  necessary  to  carry  into  effect  the  provisions  of  the 
law  in  regard  to  the  certification  of  teachers. 

5.  To  propose  and  recommend  to  school  officers  plans  for  organizing  and 
conducting  teachers'  institutes. 

6.  In  cooperation  with  the  State  Board  of  Health,  to  prescribe  rules  and 
regulations  for  the  sanitary  inspection  of  school  buildings,  and  for  pro- 
moting the  physical  welfare  of  pupils  and  teachers  in  the  public  schools. 

Sec.  5.  The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  State  Board  of  Education,  shall  make  such  appointments  as 
may  be  necessary  to  render  effectual  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  board. 

Sec.  6.  The  members  of  the  State  Board  Board  of  Education  shall  receive 
no  compensation  for  their  services.  The  incidental  expenses  of  the  board 
and  the  necessary  traveling  and  other  incidental  expenses  of  its  members, 
incurred  in  the  performance  of  their  official  duties,  shall  be  paid  from  the 
State  treasury  from  any  funds  not  otherwise  appropriated  upon  the  pre- 
sentation of  an  itemized  and  verified  statement  of  such  expenses,  approved 
by  the  Governor. 


•In  the  Senate  committee  this  section,  with  the  approval  of  three  members  of 
the  commission  who  were  present  at  the  hearmg,  was  amended  so  as  to  read  as 

Sec  2.  Such  board  shall  consist  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction 
who  shall  be  ex  officio  chairman  thereof ;  and  representatives  of  each  of  the  follow- 
ing school  interests  to  be  selected  by  the  Governor  of  the  State,  by  and  with  the 
approval  of  the  Senate,  the  University  of  Illinois,  tlie  State  normal  schools,  the 
non-state  colleges  and  universities,  the  city  superintendency,  the  county  superin- 
tendency the  public  high  schools,  the  non-state  high  schools,  the  state  elementary 
schools  the  non-state  elementary  schools,  and  two  eminent  citizens  of  the  State 
not  directly  engaged  in  educational  work.  Provided,  hotvever.  that  not  more  than 
seven  members  of  said  board  shall  be  of  the  same  political  party. 


48 

The  following  table  shows  the  states  now  having  a  state  board  of 
education,  the  number  of  members,  the  term  of  office,  thoir  compensa- 
tion and  their  powers  and  duties: 

Boards  of  Education. 


state. 


No. 


Term. 


Composition. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


Arizona . 


California. 


Colorado. 


Connecticut 


Governor,  treasurer,  super- 
intendent, principals  nor- 
mal schools,  president  uni- 
versity, two  principals  or 
superintendent  appointed 
by  governor 


Governor,  superintendent, 
president  University  of 
California  and  its  professor 
of  pedag^ogy,  principals 
normal  schools  (o) 


Superintendent,  secretary  of 
state,  attorney  general. . 


Governor,  lieutenant  gover- 
nor, secretary  board  of 
education,  ex  officio  mem- 
bers and  4  appointed  by 
general  assembly 


To  prescribe  and  enforce  uni- 
form series  of  text  books  in 
public  schools.  2.  Same  in 
regard  to  course  of  study.  3. 
To  grant  6  year  and  life  dip- 
lomas and  revoke  them.  4. 
To  adopt  lists  of  books  for 
scliool  libraries 


To  prescribe  uniform  series 
of  text  books  in  common 
schools  and  cause  them  to  be 
printed  by  state  and  sold  at 
cost.  2.  To  adopt  rules  for 
government  of  schools  and 
libraries.  3.  To  prescribe  high 
school  credentiaLs.  4.  TO  grant 
life  diplomas  of  4  grades  and 
revoke  them.  5.  To  designate 
an  educational  journal  as  offi- 
cial. 6.  To  designate  creden- 
tials of  other  states  on  which 
certificates  may  be  issued.  .  .  . 

1.  To  grant  and  revoke  certifi- 
cates. 2.  To  adopt  rules  and 
regulations  for  government  of 
schools.  The  legislature  and 
the  board  are  prohibited  by 
the  constitution  from  prescrib- 
ing  text   books 


1.  To  have  general  supervision 
and  control  of  educational  in- 
terests. 2.  To  direct  what 
books  may  be  used  in  schools. 
3.  To  secure  uniformity  of  re- 
ports. 4.  To  hold  and  con- 
duct teachers'  meetings.  5. 
To  report  to  governor.  6.  To 
grant  and  revoke  certificates. 
7.  To  provide  for  testing  eye- 
sight of  children.  8.  To  en- 
force child  labor  law.  9.  To 
maintain  normal  school  and 
model  school.  (Note — For  ad- 
ditional powpr.s  and  duties, 
see  special  description  of  Con- 
necticut board,   p.   16 


43 


Boards  of  Education — Continued. 


Delaware . 


Florida. 


Georgia. 


Idaho 


Indiana. 


Kansas. 


President  Delaware  College, 
superintendent  and  secre- 
tary of  state 


Governor,  superintendent, 
secretary  of  state,  attorney 
general 


Governor,  state  school  com- 
mittee, secretary  of  state, 
attorney  general,  comp- 
troller general 


Superintendent,  secretary  of 
state,  attorney  general 


Governor,  superintendent, 
president  State  University. 
President  Purdue  Univer- 
sity, president  state  normal, 
superintendents  3  largest 
cities, and  3  citizens  active- 
ly engaged  in  educational 
work  in  the  state,  one  of 
whom  must  be  county  su- 
perintendent appointed  by 
governor 


Superintendent,  chancellor 
State  University,  president 
State  Agricultural  College, 
president  state  normal  and 
3  appointed  by  governor. . . 


Powers  and  Duties. 


1.  To  prescribe  uniform  series 
of  text  books.  2.  To  secure 
uniform  system  of  reports 
from  teachers  and  school  offi- 
cers. 3.  To  determine  mat- 
ters of  controversy 


To  remove  public  school  offi- 
cers for  cause.  2.  To  manage 
and  invest  school  funds.  3. 
To  decide  appeals.  4.  To  di- 
rect and  control  normal 
scHools.  military  institute  and 
Institute  for  Blind,  Deaf  and 
Dumb     


].  To  decide  appeals.  2.  To 
order  school  census.  3.  To 
prescribe  uniform  series  ^of 
text  books    


1.   To   grant  certificates   and   re- 
voke them    


To  grant  and  revoke  certifi- 
cates. 2.  To  act  as  teachers" 
training  board.  3.  To  act  as 
state  library  board.  4.  To 
elect  trustees  of  state  univer- 
sity, and  5  of  the  8  trustees 
of  the  state  normal.  5.  To 
appoint  board  of  visitors  to 
state  normal.  6.  To  prescribe 
course  of  study  for  accredited 
schools.  7.  To  select  or  pro- 
cure the  compilation  of  a  ser- 
ies of  text  books  to  be  used 
in  common  schools 


To  grant  certificates.  2.  To 
prescribe  courses  of  study  for 
public  schools,  normal  insti- 
tutes and  in  Indian  training. 
3.  To  examine  and  accredit 
educational  institutions  upon 
application    


44 


Boards  of  Education — Continued. 


State. 


No.    Term. 


Composition. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


Kentucky. 


Louisiana. 


Maryland 


Massachusetts 


Michigan. 


10 


10 


4     Superintendent,   attorney 
I    general,  secretary  of  state. 


4     Governor,     superintendent, 
[    attorney  general,  7  appoint- 
ed by  governor,  1  f n  im  each 
CQDgressional  district 


Governor,  superintendent 
and  Gappointed  by  govern- 
or, at  least  2  of  of  whom 
shall  be  from  opposite  po- 
litical parties 


Governor,  lieutenant  gov- 
ernor and  8  appomted  by 
governor,  with  approval  of 
council 


Superintendent,  (secretary, ) 
3  elected  by  popular  vote. 


To  prepare  rules,  by-laws 
and  regulations  for  govern- 
ment of  schools.  2.  To  prepare 
suitable  lists  of  books  for 
county  libraries.  3.  To  pre- 
scribe regulations  for  manage- 
ment of  libraries.  4.  To  pre- 
scribe and  publish  graded 
course  of  study  for  public 
schools 


1.  To  prepare  rules,  regulations 
and  by-laws  for  governrrient 
of  public  schools.  2.  To  en- 
force uniformity  of  text  books 
in    public   schools 


To  remove  or  suspend  county 
superintendents.  2.  To  decide 
controversies  arising  over  the 
law.  3.  To  have  general  care 
and  supervision  of  public 
school  interests.  4.  To  secure 
uniformity  in  statistical  re- 
ports of  teachers  and  county 
boards.  5.  To  grant  certifi- 
cates. 6.  To  act  as  trustees 
of  state  normal  schools 


1.  To  secure  -  uniformity  of  re- 
ports. 2.  To  appoint  secre- 
tary. 3.  To  manage  state  nor- 
mal schools.  4.  To  arrange 
for  practice  schools.  5.  To 
direct  and  supervise  education 
of  state  beneficiaries  in  special 
institutions  for  deaf  and  blind. 
6.  To  receive  applications  of 
teachers  and  furnish  informa- 
tion concerning  such  appli- 
cants to  school  committees 
and  .superintendent.  7.  To 
manage  the  school  fund.  8. 
To  determine  the  length  of  in- 
stitutes and  apply  not  more 
than  $350  to  meet  expenses  of 
each.  9.  To  grant  certificates 
to  superintendents  of  schools. 
10.  To  prescribe  rules  of  in- 
struction, test  cards,  blanks, 
etc.,  for  testing  sight  and 
hearing  of  schildren.  11.  To 
visit  county  truancy  schools. 
12.  To  inspect  high  schools  for 
the  purpose  of  approving  for 
state  reimbursement  of  tui- 
tion expenditures  for  pupils 
of  other  towns  not  having 
high    schools    


1.  To  supervise  normals  and  pre- 
scribe course  of  study  in 
same.  2.  To  grant  state  cer- 
tificates. 3.  To  pass  on  text 
books    in    physiology 


45 


Boards  of  Education — Contiinied. 


State. 


No.    Term.  ■ 


Composition. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


Mississippi. 


Missoiip 


Montana. 


Nevada 


11 


Secretary  of  State,  attorney 
general  and  superintend- 
ent public  instruction 


Superintendent  (president,) 
governor. secretary  of  state, 
attorney  general 


Governor,  superintendent, 
attorney  general  and  8  ap- 
pointed by  governor 


Governor,     superintendent, 
president  of  university 


To  decide  appeals  from  the 
decision  of  the  county  or  the 
state  superintendent.  2.  To 
revoke  a  county  certificate  for 
cause.  3.  To  audit  claims 
against  the  common  school 
fund.  4.  To  determine  neces- 
sary contingent  expenses  of 
state  superintendent's  office. 
5.  To  regulate  all  matters 
arising  in  the  practical  ad- 
ministration of  the  school  sys- 
tem which  are  not  otherwise 
provided  for.  6.  To  adopt,  if 
thought  necessary,  a  course. of 
study  to  be  pursued  in  the 
schools.  7.  To  de.slgnate  an  ar- 
bor day.  S.  To  require  reports 
from  the  county  superintend- 
ents     


1.  To  supervise  entire  educa- 
tional interests  of  state.  2. 
To  see  that  state  school 
moneys  are  collected  and 
properly  applied,  and  to  report 
to  the  legislature.  3.  To  pre- 
scribe requirements  for  ap- 
proval of  summer  schools.  4. 
To  prepare  outlines  of  work 
for  county  institutes.  5.  To 
appoint  1  of  the  3  members 
of  county  board  of  education . 


1.  To  control  and  supervise  state 
educational  instiutions.  2.  To 
grant  6  year  and  life  diplo- 
mas. 3.  To  appoint  instruc- 
tors in  county  institutes.  4. 
To  formulate  a  state  course 
of  study  for  high  schools,  and 
to  accredit  such  high  schools 
as  do  satisfactory  work.  5. 
To  auhorize  the  superintend- 
ent to  provide  rules  and  reg- 
ulations for  conducting  eiglith 
grade  examinations   


1.  To  prescribe  the  course  of 
study  in  high  schools.  2.  To 
recommend  list  of  books  for 
district  libraries.  3.  To  Issue 
and  revoke  state  and  county 
certificates.  4.  To  act  with 
4  appointees  of  governor  as 
state   text   book   commission.. 


46 


Boards  of  Education — Continued. 


State. 


Term. 


Composition. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


New  Jersey 


New  Mexico 


New  York. 


20 


Appointed  by  governor; 
supperintendent  is  secre- 
tary   


Governor,  superintendent, 
and  5  appointed  by  gover- 
nor from  heads  of  territor- 
ial educational  institutions, 
president  of  St.  Michaels 
College  and  superinten- 
dents of  4  largest  cities 


Elected  by  legislature  as  far 
H9  may  be,  one  from  each 
judicial  district 


To  manage  state  normal 
schools  and  state  charitable 
educational  institutions.  2. 
To  appoint,  and  for  cause  re- 
move, county  superintendents 
of  schools.  3.  To  prescribe 
rules  and  regulations  for 
teachers'  institutes.  4.  To  de- 
cide appeals  from  the  decis- 
ion of  the  state  superintend- 
ent. 5.  To  make  rules  and 
regulaiions  for  the  examina- 
tion of  teachers  and  the  grad- 
ing- of  certificates.  6.  To  ap- 
point 1  member  to  act  with 
superintendent  and  principals 
of  normal  schools  as  board  of 
examiners     


To  grant,  renew  and  revoke 
certificates.  2.  To  adopt  se- 
ries of  text  books.  3.  To  pre- 
scribe tmiform  coufse  of  study 
for  public  schools.  4.  To  con- 
trol  teachers'   institutes 


1.  To  establish  such  rules  and 
regulations  as  are  necessary 
to  carry  into  effect  the  stat- 
utes relating  to  education.  2. 
To  encourage  and  promote 
higher  education.  3.  To  visit 
and  inspect  educational  insti- 
tutions and  departments  of 
the  university  and  to  require 
reports.  4.  To  distribute  to, 
to  expend  or  to  administer  for 
them  such  property  and  funds 
as  the  state  may  appropriate 
therefor,  or  as  the  university 
may  own  or  hold.  5.  To  es- 
tablish examinations  in  the 
academies  of  the  university, 
furnishing  a  suitable  standard 
for  graduation  from  acade- 
mies and  admission  to  col- 
leges. 6.  To  confer  degrees 
and  diplomas  and  certificates. 
7.  To  copoerate  w'ith  other 
agencies  in  extending  oppor-»' 
tunities  and  facilities  for  edu- 
cation to  adults  as  w^ell  as 
youths.  8.  To  have  control  of 
the  stae  library  and  state  mu- 
seum, and  may  establish  other 
departments,  if  deemed  neces- 
sary, and  to  maintain  lectures 
connected  with  higher  educa- 
tion      


47 


Boards  of  Educaiion — Continued. 


State.         iNo.  i  Term. 


Composition. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


N.  Carolina. . 


Oklahama  .. 


Oregon 


Rhode  Island. 


Governor,  superintendent, 
lieutenant  governor,  secre- 
tary of  state,  treasurer, 
auditor,  attorney  general.. 


4  Superintendent,  governor, 
secretary  of  state,  attorney 
general 


Governor,  secretary  of  state 
and  superintendent 


Governor,    lieutenant    gov 
ernor,    1   from    each    of   4 
counties  and  2  from  Prov 
dence      county,       county 
members  elected   by  gen- 
eral assembly  


1.  To  loan  mon^y  from  state 
literary  fund  to  county  boards 
of  education  for  building  and 
improving  .school  houses.  2. 
To  adopt  uniform  series  of 
text  books  for  public  schools. 
3.  To  control  colored  nor- 
mals. 4.  To  elect  directors  of 
state  normal  and  Indian  Col- 
lege and  trustees  of  East  Car- 
olina Training  School.  6.  To 
sell  swamn  lands  belonging 
to  board.  7.  To  pass  upon  ap- 
peals from  county  board.  8. 
To  prescribe  other  studies 
deemed  necessary  in  public 
schools     


1.    To     prepare     questions     for 
county  and  city  examinations. 

2.  To  grant  certificates  to 
teachers,  conductors,  and  in- 
structors of  normal  institutes. 

3.  To  prepare  blanks.  4.  To 
accredit   schools    


To  authorize  series  of  text 
books  adopted  by  text  book 
commission  (the  latter  com- 
posed of  5  appointed  by  gov- 
ernor.) 2.  To  prepare  course 
of  study  of  grammar  grade 
schools  and  of  certain  high 
schools.  3.  To  prescribe  rules 
and  regulations  for  general 
government  of  schools.  4.  To 
grant  state  certificates  and 
diplomas  on  recommendation 
of  state  board  of  examiners. 
(4  to  9  professional  teachers 
appointed  by  state  board.)  5. 
To  indicate  sources  of  ques- 
tions on   theory  and   practice . 


To  elect  commissioner  of 
schools,  who  acts  as  secre- 
tary. 2.  To  appropriate  money 
for  libraries  and  to  prescribe 
the  character  of  books  for 
same.  3.  To  exercise  certain 
control  over  private  schools. 
4.  %n  prescribe  blanks.  5.  To 
make  annual  report  to  gen- 
eral a.s.sembly.  6.  To  examine 
teachers  and  to  Lssue  and  re- 
voke certificates    


48 


Boards  of  Educaiion — Continued. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


S.  Carolina 


Tennessee. 


Texas 


Utah 


Governor,  superintendent 
and  not  more  than  7  ap- 
pointed by  governor 


Six  appointed  by  governor; 
governor  is  president  and 
superintendent  is  secretary 
and  treasurer 


Governor  (superintendent 
secretary  ex  officio),  secre- 
tary of  state,  comptroller.. 


Superintendent,  president 
state  university,  president 
agricultural  college,  2  ap- 
pointed by  governor 


1.  To  adopt  rules  and  regula- 
tions for  government  of  free 
schools.  2.  To  prescribe  and 
enforce  rules  for  examination 
of  teachers.  3.  To  prescribe 
standard  of  proficiency  entit- 
ling persons  examined  by 
county  board  to  certificate  a.s 
teacher.  4.  To  prescribe  and 
enforce  the  course  of  study  in 
free  public  shools.  5.  To 
prescribe  and  enforce  uniform 
series  of  text  books  in  free 
public  schools.  6.  To  grant 
and  revWve  certificates.  7.  To 
award  scholarships  created  by 
general  assembly  in  state  in- 
stitutions      


To  report  to  general  assem- 
bly. 2.  To  inspect  manage- 
ment of  state  normal.  3.  To 
locate,  adopt  course  of  study 
and  employ  teachers  and  offi- 
cers of  normal  schools.  4.  To 
grant  diplomas.  5.  To  pre- 
scribe rules  and  regulations 
examination  of  applicants  for 
county    superintendent    


1.  To  apportion  available  school 
fund  among  counties,  cities 
and  towns.  2.  To  consider 
appeals  from  state  superin- 
tendent. 3.  To  care  for  in- 
vestment of  permanent  school 
funds      


1.  To  grant  diplomas  and  cer- 
tificates. 2.  To  appoint  2  of 
5  members  to  prescribe  course 
of  study    


49 


Boards  of  Education — Concluded. 


State. 


No.    Term. 


Composition. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


Virginia 


Washington. 


W.  Virginia  .. 


Governor,  attorney  general, 
superintendent,  3  elected 
by  senate  from  list  of  eligi- 
bles,  including  members  of 
faculties  of  state  institu- 
tions, 2  division  superin- 
tendents of  schools 


Superintendent,  4  liolding 
state  diplomas  appointed 
by  governor 


Superintendent  and  5  others 
engaged  in  educational 
work  appointed  by  him, 
one  from  each  congress- 
ional district 


1.  To  divide  state  into  appro- 
priate school  divisions.  2.  To 
prescribe  duties  of  superinten- 
dent, to  make  rules  and  regu- 
lations for  the  management 
and  conduct  of  schools.  3. 
To  provide  for  the  examina- 
tion of  teachers  by  a  state 
board  of  examiners,  and  to 
accredit  schools.  4.  To  select 
text  books,  furniture  and  ap- 
pliances for  use  In  the  pub- 
lic schools.  5.  To  guard 
against  the  multiplication  of 
schools.  6.  To  decide  appeals 
from  superintendent  of  pub- 
lic instruction.  7.  To  punish, 
suspend  or  remove  division 
superintendents  of  schools,  ft. 
To  appoint  directors  of  the 
state  library.  10.  To  report 
to  general  assembly    


,  To  prepare  a  course  of  study 
for  primary,  grammar  and 
high  schools.  2.  To  grant 
state  certificates  and  diplo- 
mas. 3.  To  prepare  uniform 
series  of  questions  to  be  used 
by  county  superintendents  in 
examinations.  4.  To  accredit 
schools.  Note — Washington 
has  also  board  of  higher  edu- 
cation exercising  control  over 
normals   and  university 


1.  To  act  as  state  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 2.  To  prescribe  a 
cour.se  of  study  for  the  public 
schools.  3.  To  define  the  re- 
lation of  the  different  kinds 
of   schools    


The  State  Board  axd  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

The  relation  which  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  sustains 
to  the  state  board  of  education  differs  among  the  states.  He  is  almost 
always  a  member  of  the  board  and  in  nine  of  the  states,  namely :  Col- 
orado, Idaho,  Kentucky,  Missouri,  New  York,  Utah,  Virginia,  Wash- 
ington and  West  Virginia  he  is  its  executive  officer.  As  lias  already 
been  seen  he  is  sometimes  an  appointee  of  the  board.  This  i.<  the  ca.se  in 
Connecticut,   Massachusetts,   New   York   and   Ehode   Island.      In   West 

E  C 


50 

Virginia,  however,  he  is  given  power  to  appoint  the  live  other  mem- 
bers. This  phin  lias  been  approved  by  some  of  the  superintendents  of 
other  states. 

Advantages  of  a  State  Board. 

The  educational  systems  of  the  various  states,  like  the  bodies  of  law 
under  which  they  are  operated,  have  grown  up  in  a  more  or  less  hap- 
hazard manner  to  meet  the  most  imperative  needs  of  rapidly  increasing 
populations  and  rapidly  changing  conditions.  At  the  beginning  the 
schooling  of  children  was  left  wholly  to  the  initiative  of.  the  local  com- 
munities, and  rightly  so  for  the  reason  that  differences  in  social  and  in- 
dustrial conditions,  the  customs,  predilections  and  ideals  of  the  people 
made  the  educational  needs  of  a  state  essentially  diverse.  Moreover,  a 
central  body  of  any  Idnd  was  too  remote  to  act  effectively  as  a  stimulat- 
ing and  regulating  agency.  Not  only  were  the  support  and  management 
of  schools  a  matter  of  merely  local  concern,  but  it  was  often  left  to  each 
community  to  say  whether  it  should  have  any  school  at  all.  All  this 
was  justifiable  under  the  conditions  then  existing.  But  conditions  have 
changed.  Close  interrelations  of  the  various  communities  in  all  the 
states  of  the  Union  have  been  developed  with  great  rapidity.  The  de- 
velopment of  system  in  the  educational  work  of  the  states,  however,  did 
not  always  keep  pace  with  them.  Industrial  and  social  conditions,  cus- 
toms and  ideals,  the  population  itself,  have  become  practically  homo- 
geneous. A  central  body  to  exercise  supervision  over  the  schools  of  a 
state  is  not  now  remote  either  in  time  or  in  space.  Education  has  be- 
come distinctly  a  state  function.  The  doctrine  that  the  taxable  prop- 
erty of  the  entire  state  should  educate  the'  children  of  the  state  has 
been  generally  accepted.  Complete  state  educational  systems  are,  there- 
fore, needed,  and  a  state  board  of  education  with  liberal  powers,  and 
opportunity  for  discretion  in  matters  of  detail,  is  an  indispensible  part 
of  such  system. 

One  of  the  greatest  advantages  to  be  derived  from  a  state  board  of 
education  is  systematic  organization  of  the  educational  forces  of  the 
state.  System  means  economy,-  the  elimination  of  waste,  immediate  ac- 
tion to  meet  unexpected  emergencies,  orderly  progress.  The  develop- 
ment of  system  characterizes  all  progress,  particularly  all  industrial 
progress.  Business  men  are  quick  to  see  the  advantages  of  it,  as  is  illus- 
trated by  any  progressive  and  successful  industrial  corporation. 

ISTow  the  educational  work  of  a  state  is,  in  one  of  its  aspects,  a  busi- 
ness proposition.  In  Illinois,  for  instance,  there  are  a  million  pupils 
to  be  instructed,  13,000  buildings  erected  for  that  purpose,  28,000 
teachers  employed,  all  involving  an  expenditure  of  $32,000,000.00.  If 
this  vast  business  were  put  in  the  hands  of  business  men  they  would  in- 
stinctively begin  immediately  to  introduce  system  in  order  to  elim- 
inate the  present  waste  of  education,  and  thus  increase  the  ratio  of 
eduf-ntional   rosults  to  educational  expenditure.     They  would  probabh'' 


create  not  only  an  exeeutive  head  of  tUe  business  to  insure  swilt  action, 
but  also  a  board  of  directors  to  give  counsel,  and  to  lay  down  rules  with- 
in which  this  activity  should  be  exercised. 

A  state  board  of  education  for  the  state  corresponds  in  a  way  to  the 
board  of  directors  in  an  industrial  corporation.  The  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  is  usually  the  executive  head.  The  analogy  is  not  per- 
fect but  it  is  sufficiently  close  to  suggest  some  of  the  advantages  of  a 
state  board,  and  some  of  the  possibilities  of  increasing  the  efficiency  of 
our  school  systems  by  making  them  still  more  systematic.  The  super- 
intendent needs  the  board  of  education  for  some  of  the  same  reasons  that 
the  executive  officer  of  an  industrial  corporation  needs  a  board  of 
directors.  He  needs  it  for  the  same  reason  that  the  president  needs  his 
cabinet,  and  as  the  needs  of  the  head  of  an  industry  are  in  reality  the 
needs  of  the  stock  holders,  the  needs  of  the  president  those  of  the 
people,  so  also  are  the  needs  of  a  superintendent  of  public  instruction 
for  a  state  board  of  education  in  the  final  analysis  the  needs  of  the 
state. 

This  need  will  be  the  more  conspicuous  if  we  consider  the  duties  that 
devolve  upon  a  state  superintendent  who  is  unassisted  by  a  board  of  any 
kind.  The  school  law  of  Illinois,  for  instance,  imposes  upon  the  super- 
intendent and  confers  upon  him  nine  different  powers.  Some  of  these 
duties  and  powers  are  of  the  most  general  nature.  For  instance,  he  is 
required  '''to  supervise  all  the  common  and  public  schools  in  the  state." 
He  is  also  required  "to  make  such  rules  and  regulations  as  may  be  nec- 
essary to  carry  into  efficient  and  uniform  effect  the  provisions"  of  all 
laws  for  establishing  and  maintaining  free  schools  in  the  state.  He  is 
required  to  make  a  biennial  report  to  the  Governor.  He  is  ex  officio 
a  member  and  secretary  of  the  board  of  education  of  the  State  of  Illi- 
nois, a  member  of  the  board  of  trustees  of  the  University  of  Illinois, 
of  the  Southern  Illinois  Normal  University,  of  the  Northern  Illi- 
nois State  Normal  School,  of  the  Eastern  Illinois  State  Noi-mal  School, 
of  the  Western  Illinois  Illinois  State  Normal  School,  of  the  Natural 
History  Museum,  of  the  Lincoln  Homestead  Trustees,  of  the  Commis- 
sioners of  the  Lincoln  Monument  Ground,  of  the  Commissioners  of  the 
State  Library  and  of  the  Directors  of  the  Illinois  Farmers'  Institute. 
He  is  required  to  visit  all  the  charitable  institutions  of  the  state  that 
are  educational  in  their  character,  to  examine  their  facilities  for  in- 
struction, and  to  prescribe  forms  for  such  reports  as  he  may  desire  from 
their  superintendents.  These  are  only  a  few  of  his  duties.  It  is  clear 
that  a  board  of  education  might  relieve  him  of  some  of  these  duties, 
as  well  as  assist  him  by  counsel.  Such  a  board  would  be  of  invaluable 
assistance  to  him  in  impressing  upon  the  people  of  the  state  the  ideas 
which  he  wishes  to  become  dominant  and  effective  in  school  organization 
and  administration  and  especially  to  aid  in  supporting  the  ]iolicies 
which  he  endeavors  to  carry  into  effect.  In  a  word,  a  State  Board  of 
Education  properly  constituted  should  increase  incalculably  tlie  olTi- 
ciency  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

Inaddition  to  the  advantasres  just  described  a  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion should   o-ivc  to  the  school  system   an  oxjiansivoness  that  is  highly 


desirable  and  that  conld  hardly  exist  without  it.  With  some  discretion 
in  matters  of  administrative  detail  it  would  enable  the  system  to  adjust 
itself  more  or  less  automatically  to  the  changing  educational  needs  and 
conditions  of  a  growing  commonwealth.  The  law  should  define  the 
direction  of  expansion  and  the  limits  within  which  it  may  take  place, 
but  it  might  well  leave  to  the  system  some  room  to  burgeon  out  without 
the  necessity  of  additional  legislation.  If  the  board  is  essentially  a  rule 
making  body,  the  discretion  allowed  to  it,  while  confined  within  safe 
limits,  would  yet  afford  a  certain  liberty  of  movement  and  freedom 
of  adjustment  which  naturally  belong  to  all  things  that  are  alive. 

Again,  an  efficient  State  board  is  valuable  to  the  State  if  it  does- 
nothing  more  than  serve  as  a  continuous  body  for  the  study  of  school 
problems  and  the  dissemination  of  knowledge  throughout  the  state  con- 
cerning educational  conditions  and  educational  progress.  The  Massa- 
chusetts board  has  been  conspicuously  helpful  in  this  respect.  Its 
earlier  reports  especially  not  only  carried  infonnation  to  the  people  of 
Massachusetts,  but  were  republished  by  the  legislatures  of  other  states, 
by  the  British  Parliament,  and  by  the  German  government.* 

Objections. 

The  history  of  school  legislation  in  every  state  shows  that  movements 
in  the  direction  of  a  more  complete  educational  system  usually  meet 
with  opposition.  The  effort  to  place  the  schools  of  the  county  under  the 
supervision  of  a  county  superintendent  of  schools,  and  the  effort  to  put 
all  of  the  schools  of  the  state  under  the  supervision  of  a  state  school 
officer  have  evoked  many  objections.  It  was  said  that  such  efforts  were 
a  reflection  on  the  existing  school  authorities,  that  they  contemplated 
a  dangerous  centralization  of  power,  that  they  involved  the  creation 
of  new  offices  of  doubtful  utility  to  absorb  more  of  the  people's  money, 
that  the  schools  were  already  highly  efficient.  Why  not  let  well  enough 
alone?  Such  were  the  objections  raised  by  the  ultra-conservative.  They 
are  now  seen  to  have  been  without  foundation,  or  to  have  risen  from  a 
misconception  of  the  nature  and  function  of  these  offices,  or  a  mis- 
understanding of  the  true  relation  of  the  schools  of  a  community  to  the 
general  well  being  of  the  state ;  and  county  and  state  supervision  of 
schools  has  become  a  well  established  policy.  The  same  objections  are 
heard  again,  however,  when  it  is  proposed  to  create  a  State  Board  of  Edu- 
cation. 

The  main  objection  to  the  creation  of  a  State  Board  of  Education 
is  that  it  involves  an  undesirable,  if  not  dangerous,  centralization  of 
power.  To  this  it  may  be  said  that,  in  this  case,  tlie  fear  arises  partly 
from  a  failure  to  distinguish  between  a  true  centralization  of  power 
and  an  organization  of  functions  or  duties.  When  a  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  is  provided  for,  he  is  usually  clothed  with  great  power. 


*Seventy-flrFt  Annual   Report.   Board   of  Education,   Massachusetts,    1906-7,   p.    11. 


53 

Eut  the  special  activities  necessarily  connected  with  the  full  exercise 
•of  this  power  are  distributed  among  various  agencies.  To  gather  them 
up,  organize  and  unify  them  under  a  central  board  should  not  be  re- 
garded as  .a  centralization  of  power  as  usually  implied  by  that  ex- 
pression. 

The  second  objection  is  that  a  board  of  education  may  be  so  consti- 
tuted as  to  be  or  to  become  a  political  body  with  sellish  or  partisan  ends 
and  with  no  deep  and  abiding  interest  in  educational  problems  or  the 
welfare  of  the  schools.  This  is  a  real  danger  but  it. may  be  avoided  by 
the  adoption  of  a  wise  method  of  constituting  a  board.  The  experience 
of  the  various  states  seems  to  point .  to  the  selection  of  the  members  of 
the  State  Board  of  Education  by  appointment  as  the  least  objectionijble. 
An  efficient  board  must  be  a  body  of  educational  experts,  and  when 
experts ,  are  desired  it  is  generally  true  that  they  are  more  likely  to  be 
secured  by  appointment,  if  the  appointing  power  can  be  trusted",  than 
they  are  by  election.  With  the  appointino;  power  vested  in  the  Governor, 
by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  or  in  a  carefully 
selected  appointing  board,  there  is  little  to  fear  either  from  unwise 
appointments  or  from-  appointments  dictated  by  personal  or  political 
considerations.  The  mode  of  appointment  recommended  by  the  Illi- 
nois Educational  Commission  is  to  have  the  appointive  members  selected 
by  an  appointing  board  consisting  of  the  Governor  of  the  State,  the 
Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  the  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction.  If  a  board  so  constituted  can  not  be  trusted  to  act  con- 
siderately and  unselfishly  in  a  matter  so  intimateb-  related  to  the  wel- 
fare of  the  great  educational  and  moral  interests  of  the  State,  it  would 
seem  that  we  must  despair  of  being  able  to  secure  a  non-political  and 
effective  board.  Only  one  state  board  of  education  in  the  country  is 
elected  by  popular  vote,  and  this  is  a  board  whose  powers  and  duties  are 
relatively  few  and  simple.  Constitution  by  appointment  is,  therefore, 
in  harmony  with  the  practice  of  other  states  as  well  as  in  accordance 
with  the  conclusions  reached  from  a  purcb-  rational  consideration  of 
the  subject. 

We  may  say,  then,  in  concluding  the  discussion  of  the  State  Board 
of  Education,  that  such  a  body  should  increase  the  efficiency  of  a  school 
system  by  introducing  greater  economy,  and  bv  increasing  its  respon- 
siveness to  newly  arising  conditions  and  needs ;  that  it  involves  no 
dangerous  centralization  of  power,  that,  if  properly  constituted,  it  would 
be  an  agency  by  means  of  which  the  entire  State  could  avail  itself,  witli- 
out  any  considerable  additional  expense,  of  the  wisdom  of  disinterested 
and  high  minded  citizens  in  devising  educational  policies,  in  guarding 
the  schools  from  ill-advised,  ill-considered  or  hostile  legislation,  and  in 
assisting  the  chief  school  officer  of  tlie  State  to  perform  more  efficientlv 
the  duties  imposed  upon  him  l>y  law.  but  wlu'ch  under  present  circum- 
stances are  too  often  sucli  as  no  single  officer  can  adequately  perform. 


54 

The  indications  alTorded  by  the  development  o^  educational  administra- 
tion are  that  State  boards  of  education  are  to  occupy  an  increasingly 
important  relation  to  the  educational  activities  of  the  various  states. 

REFERENCES. 

Brown,  E.  E. — Early  State  systems  of  secondary  education  ;   in  his  The  making  of 

our  middle  schools.     1903.     p.   204-227. 
— — —Later   State   systems  ;   in   his   The   making  of   our  middle   schools.      1903. 

p.   347-68. 
Dexter.  E.  G. — The  State  system  ;  in  his  A  history  of  education  in  the  United  States. 

1904.  .  p.    199-202. 
The    development   of   school    organization    and   administration ;    in    his   A 

history  of  education   in  the   United  States.      1904.      p.    182-206. 
Draper,   A.    S. — Unsettled   questions  in   the   organization   and   administration   of   the 

schools.     Lewis  and  Clark  educational  congress.      Proceedings   1905.      p.    24-40. 
Drapei-.  A.   S. — Limits  of  State  control  in  education.     Educational  Review   1 :26-32. 

(January,  1891.) 
■ Educational  organization  and  administration.     In  monographs  on  educa- 
tion in  the  United  States,  edited  by  N.  M.  Butler.      1  :3-31.      1904. 

-Functions  of  the  State  touching  education.     Educational  Review.     15  :105- 


20.      (February,  1898.) 
Dutton,  S.  T.  and  Snedden,  David — American  states  and  educational  administration  ; 

in   their    Tlie   administration   of    public   education    in   the    United    States.      1908. 

p.   54-72. 
• Problems   growing  out   of   State    and   local   administration   of  education ; 

in   their   The   administration   of   public   education   in   the    United   States.      1908. 

p.   96-119. 
Easton,  Warren— Best  system  of  State  school  supervision  ;  in  United  States  Bureau 

of  Education.     Circular  of  information  1887.     No.   3,  p.   156-73. 

Paper    read    before    National    Education    Association — Department    of    superin- 
tendence. 
Elliott.  E.  C. — Administrative  control  and  supervision  of  elementary  and  secondary 

education ;    in    his    State    school    systems :      Legislation    and    Judicial    decisions 

relating  to  public  education,  October,  1904-October,  1906.     United  States  Bureau 

of  Education   Bulletin,   1906,  No.   3. 
Elliott,  E.  C. — Administrative  control  and  supervision  of  elementary  and  secondary 

education ;    in    his    State    school    systems :      Legislation    and    judicial    decisions 

relating  to  public  education,  October,  1906-October,  1908.     United  States  Bureau 

of  Education,  Bulletin,   1908,  No.   2. 
Fairlie,    J.    A. — Public   education ;    in    his    Centralization    of   administration    in    New 

York    State.      Columbia    University    studies    in    history,    economics    and    public 

law.     Vol.  9,  No.  3,  1898. 

Valuable   as   history   but   not   descriptive   of   present   conditions. 
Illinois — Educational  commission.     A  tentative  plan  for  a  State  board  of  education. 

Bulletin  No.   1,   1908. 
Indiana    State    Educational    Commission.       Report.       Educator    Journal,     7 :289-96. 

(February,    1907.) 
Kiddle,  Henry  and  Schem,  Alexander  J. — Cyclopedia  of  Education.     B.  Steiger,  New 

York,   1877.     Articles  on  the  various  states. 
Maj'o,   A.   D. — The   development  of  the   common   school   in   the  western   states   from 

1830-1865.      United  States  Commissioner  of  Education.     Report.      1898-99,   Vol. 

1,  p.   357-450. 
The  organization   and  reconstruction   of  state  systems  of  common-school 

education   in   the    North   Atlantic   states   from    1830-1865.      United   States   Com- 
missioner of  Education.      Report,   1897-98,   p.   355-486. 
New    York    (state)    legislature.      Final    report    of    the    special    joint    committee    on 

educational   unification.      1904.      Contains   a   chart  on   school   supervision   which 

includes    the    name,    composition,    characterization,    etc.,    of    the    various    state 

boards  of  education  in  the  United  States. 
Patterson,  J.  W. — State  supervision  :  what  plan  of  organization  and  administration 

is  most   effective.      National  Education  Association.      Proceedings,    1890:432-39. 

Discussion,  439-46. 
Prince,  J.  T. — State  administration  of  schools  ;  in  his  School  administration,   p.   21- 

31,   1906. 
Rawles,  W.  A. — Public  education  ;  in  his  Centralizing  tendencies  in  the  admini.stra- 

tion  of  Indiana.     Columbia  University  studies  in  history,  economics  and  public 

law.     Vol.   17,  No.   1,   1903. 
Webster,  W.  A. — Recent  centralizing  tendencies  in  state  educational  administration. 

Columbia    University    studies    in    history,    economics    and    public    law.      Vol.    8, 

No.   2,   1897. 
Webster,  W.  C. — Recent  centralizing  tendencies  in  state  educational   administration. 

Educational   Review,    13:23-33,    134-45.      (January   and   February.    1897.) 

Popularization  of  author's  thesis  for  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  in  the 

faculty  of  political  science  of  Columbia  University. 


Ot> 


THE  COUNTY  SUPERINTENDENT. 


The  larger  subdivisions  of  the  states  for  political  purposes  are  called 
counties  in  all  the  states  but  Louisiana  in  which  they  are  called  parishes. 
The  county,  or  parish,  forms  a  convenient  unit  for  school  supervision. 
Consequently  a  large  number  of  states  make  this  smaller  unit  an  in- 
tegral part  of  the  State  educational  system  and  provide  for  county 
supervision  of  schools. 

Number  of  States  Having  Couxty  (or  District)   Supervision. 

Thirty-nine  states  and  two  territories  have  county  superintendents 
of  schools  or  educational  officers  with  equivalent  functions  or  functions 
corresponding  closely  to  those  of  county  superintendent.  In  Arkansas 
in  counties  which  have  not  elected  county  superintendent  they  are  called 
county  examiners.  In  Georgia,  Kansas,  Maryland,  Michigan,  Ohio, 
and  in  those  counties  of  Missouri  which  have  not  by  vote  of  the  people 
established  county  school  supervision,  the  official  title  of  the  county 
educational  officer  is  commissioner  of  schools.  Louisiana  being^  divided 
into  parishes,  has  parish  superintendents.  In  New  York  and  Virginia, 
the  supervisory  districts  are  not  co-extensive  with  counties,  being  some- 
times larger  and  sometimes  smaller,  hence  in  New  York  the  official 
corresponding  to  county  superintendent  is  called  district  commissioner 
of  schools  and  in  Virginia  division  superintendent.  In  Nevada  the  office 
of  county  superintendent  of  schools  was  abolished  in  August  1907. 
But  the  state  is  divided  into  five  districts  and  the  schools  of  each  dis- 
trict are  supervised  by  five  deputy  state  superintendents  of  public  in- 
struction who,  by  virtue  of  their  offices,  are  members  of  the  board  of 
education  examiners.  They  are  required  also  to  assist  the  state  board  of 
education  in  preparing  courses  of  study.  The  states  which  are  Avholly 
without  direct  county  supervision  are  Connecticut.  IVfaine,  Massachu- 
setts, New  Hamnshire,  Ohio  and  Ehode  Island.  In  these  states  the  pre- 
vailing form  of  supervision  is  that  of  the  town  or  township.  In  each 
of  these  states  the  law  provides  for  the  election  of  town  or  township 
supervisor  and  permits  two  or  more  towns  or  townships  to  unite  in  the 
employment  of  such  an  officer. 

New  York  was  the  first  state  to  provide  for  a  county  superintendent 
of  schools.  In  1841  an  act  was  passed  creating  this  office,  but  was  abol- 
isliod  in  lS4r  to  reappear  in  1856  as  the  office  of  county  school  commis- 


56 

sioner.  Illinois  soon  followed  the  example  of  Xew  York  in  providing 
for  county  supervision  and  as  the  history  of  the  county  superintendency 
in  that  State  is  typical  it  is  given  in  full. 

The  Couxty  Superintendency  in  Illinois. 

The  county  superintendency  in  Illinois  originated  in  an  office  "which 
had  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  supervision  of  schools.  By  an 
Act  of  Jan.  22,  1829  it  was  made  the  duty  of  the  county  commissioner's 
court  "to  appoint  some  good,  competent  and  responsible  person  of  the 
county  to  act  as  commissioner  and  agent  for  the  county"  in  the  sale 
of  public  lands.  This  person  was  the  prototype  of  the  present  county 
superintendent.  Thus  the  county  superintendent  was  originally  merely 
a  county  land  agent.  In  1833  this  commissioner  was  authorized  to 
apportion  the  interest  of  the  school  fund  in  his  county  among  the 
several  teachers  entitled  thereto  and  was  permitted  to  retain  as  his 
compensation  two  and  one-half  per  cent  on  all  sums  apportioned.  By 
the  Act  of  1841  the  office  af  school  commissioner  was  made  elective. 
The  term  w-as  fixed  at  two  years  and  the  compensation  was  changed 
to  three  per  cent  on  the  amount  derived  from  the  sale  of  iands,  two 
l^ev  cent  on  moneys  reloaned,  and  two  per  cent  on  the  amoimt  of  all 
moneys  distributed  and  paid  to  teachers  and  trustees  for  the  support 
of  schools.  jSTo  supervisory  duties  were  required  of  the  commissioner 
until  1845.  In  that  year  it  was  provided  that  "Each  and  every  school 
commissioner  shall  be  ex  officio  superintendent  of  common  schools  in 
his  county  and  shall  by  himself  or  some  other  qualified  person,  as 
often  as  practicable,  visit  all  the  townships  in  his  county,  inquire  into 
the  condition  and  manner  of  conducting  schools  in  the  same,  and  use 
his  influence  to  carry  out  the  system  proposed  by  the  State  Superin- 
tendent."* He  was  also  authorized  to  examine  teachers  and  grant 
certificates.  Under  the  Act  of  1841  this  duty  had  been  performed  by 
the  township  trustees. 

By  the  Act  of  1849  the  county  court  (the  county  board)  was  "au- 
thorized and  required"  to  pay  the  school  commissioners  such  an  amount 
as  they  should  deem  right  and  proper,  not  exceeding  two  dollars  per  day 
for  each  day,  nor  exceeding  fifty  days  in  any  year,  actually  spent  in 
the  discharge  of  their  duties  as  ex  officio  superintendents  of  schools. 
The  Act  of  1851  repealed  this  provision  and  made  the  pa^^ment  dis- 
cretionary with  the  county  boards.  Supervision  by  visitation  was  thus 
stopped  in  most  of  the  counties,  and  an  appeal  was  made  to  the  Legis- 
lature to  restore  the  per  diem.  The  Act  of  1855  -permitted  the  commis- 
sioner to  retain  out  of  the  distributive  fund  two  dollars  per  day  not  to 
exceed  fifty  days  in  any  year  for  visiting  schools.  The  Act  of  1861  per- 
mitted him  ^  to  retain  the  same  amount  per  day  for  not  exceeding  one 
hundred  days  in  any  year.     It  authorized  county  boards  to  make  an  ap- 


*At    that    time    the    Secretary    of    State    was    ex    officio    State    Superintendent    of 
common  schools. 


57 

propriation  out  of  the  county  treasury  to  pay  the  commissioner  an  ad- 
ditional sum  for  visiting  schools  and  other  educational  services  and  to 
pay  for  holding  teachers'  institutes. 

Finally,  in  1865,  the  name  commissioner  of  schools  was  changed  to 
county  superintendent  of  schools  and  the  term  of  oflfice  was  extended  to 
four  years. 

Prior  to  this  time  much  dissatisfaction  had  been  manifested  by 
superintendents  of  public  instruction  both  in  regard  to  the  term  and 
the  duties  of  the  county  officer.  In  1858  William  H.  Powell,  the 
second  to  be  elected  to  the  office  of  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion, recommended  "that  the  office  of  school  commissioner  be  so  far 
modified  as  to  provide  for  the  election,  once  in  three  years,  of  a  county 
superintendent  of  common  schools,  who  shall  be  commissioned  by  the 
State  Superintendent,  and  act  directly  under  his  control.  To  remove 
the  office  as  far  as  possible  from  the  control  of '  politics,  the  county 
superintendent  should  be  elected  by  the  school  officers  of  each  county, 
and  the  question  of  qualification  should  be  the  only  one  at  issue  in 
his  election."*  John  P.  Brooks,  the  fourth  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  for  the  least  important  and 
least  difficult  services  by  the  commissioner  of  schools  he  was  allowed 
ample  compensation,  but  for  the  most  essential  and  onerous  services 
no  compensation  at  all  was  provided.  "The  policy  of  the.  State  with 
reference  to  this  office,"  said  he,  "is  strange  beyond  comprehension. 
If  it  had  been  the  direct  purpose  of  the  State  to  legislate  the  office 
into  public  contempt,  it  could  hardly  have  been  done  more  surely.  To 
associate  it  with  the  noisy  strifes  and  chicaneries  of  party,  compelling 
men  to  go  hawking  and  bargaining  about  amongst  political  traders 
and  hucksters  to  gain  the  place — to  assign  it  so  frail  and  precarious 
a  tenure  that  men  who  step  into  the  office  have  hardly  time  to  recon- 
noitre their  position  before  they  are  called  to  step  out — to  add  insult 
to  injury  by  the  appointment  of  a  compensation  so  absolutely  insignifi- 
cant— ail  taken  together  is  certainly  enough  to  make  the  office  con- 
temptible in  the  public  eye,  and  to  make  the  office  undesirable  in  the 
eyes  of  the  incumbent  himself."  f 

By  the  law  of  1865  it  was  made  the  duty  of  the  county  superin- 
tendent "to  visit  every  school  in  his  county  at  least  once  each  year,  and 
oftoner  if  practicable,  and  to  note  the  methods  of  instruction,  the 
branches  taught,  the  text  books  used,  and  the  discipline,  government 
and  general  condition  of  the  schools."  For  this  service  he  was  allowed 
a  compensation  at  the  rate  of  three  dollars  a  day.  Later  this  was 
raised  to  four  dollars  a  day  for  each  day's  service  actually  performed. 
In  revising -the  school  law  in  1872  the  phrase  "if  so  directed  by  the 
county  board"  was  introduced,  thus  making  school  visitation  depend- 
ent upon  the  direction  of  the  county  board.  As  a  result  the  county 
supervision  of  schools  passed  almost  into  al)eyance.     At  the  time  the 

•Second  Biennial  Report  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  Illinois,   pp.   29-30. 
tFifth    Biennial    Report    Superintendent    of    Public    Instruction.    Illinois.    1863-64, 
pp.   23-24. 


58 

change  was  made  only  ten  per  cent  of  the  public  schools  of  the  State 
were  left  imvisited  by  the  county  superintendents.  Eight  years  after 
the  change  sixty-six  per  cent  of  the  schools  Avere  not  visited.  In  forty 
counties  there  was  no  visitation,  and  in  twenty-four  counties  practically 
none.*  Finally  in  1885  the  old  requirement  that  the  county  superin- 
tendent shall  visit  each  school  in  the  county  at  least  once  a  year  was 
re-enacted.  The  number  of  schools  visited  increased  from  5,134  in 
1883-4  to  9,973  in  1885-6,  and  the  number  of  schools  visited  more  than 
once  increased  one  hundred  and  sixty  per  cent.f 

Methods  of  Election. 

There  is  great  diversity  in  the  manner  of  selecting  county  superin- 
tendents of  schools.  The  prevailing  method  is  that  of  popular  elec- 
tion. This  is  the  practice  in  twenty-seven  states  and  the  two  territor- 
ies. In  four  of  the  states,  namely,  Georgia,  North  Carolina,  Louisiana 
and  Mar}dand,  the  county  superintendent,  or  county  commissioner  or 
parish  superintendent,  as  the  case  may  be,  is  elected  by  the  countv  board. 
In  Indiana  he  is  elected  by  the  trustees  of  schools  who  in  conjunction 
with  the  chairman  of  the  board  of  education  in  each  town  and  city  of 
the  county  cojistitute  the  county  board.  In  Pennsylvania  he  is  elected 
by  the  school  directors  of  the  county.  In  Delaware  he  is  appointed 
by  the  governor  and  in  Averment  by  the  governor  and  state  superin- 
tendent. In  New  Jersey  the  county  superintendent,  and  in  Virginia  the 
division  superintendent,  is  appointed  by  the  state  board  of  education. 
In  Tennessee  the  county  superintendent  is  elected  by  the  county  court. 
In  certain  counties  of  Texas  the  county  judge  is  ex  officio  county  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction. 

It  appears  then,  that  there  are  eight  different  methods  embodied  in 
this  country  in  the  selection  of  county  superintendent.  The  agents 
electing  or  appointing  them  are  as  follows:  The  people,  the  governor, 
and  the  state  superintendent,  the  state  board  of  education,  a  county 
board  of  one  kind  or  another,  the  township  trustees,  the  school  direc- 
tors and  the  county  court.  This  diversity  with  respect  to  the  election 
of  so  important  a  school  officer  can  hai'dly  be  accounted  for  on  the 
ground  of  differences  in  social,  political  and  educational  conditions. 
Something  must  be  allowed  for  these  differences,  but  the  diversity  is 
due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  the  method  of  electing  the  county  superin- 
tendent is  one  of  the  problems  of  school  administration  that  has  not 
in  many  of  the  states  been  thoroughly  worked  out.  As  a  rule  the 
method  of  selection  employed  represents  a  form  of  political  inheritance 
What,  then,  is  the  best  method  of  selecting  the  county  superintendent? 
This  is  a  most  important  question  of  educational  administration. 

As  to  the  first  method,  namely,  election  by  the  people,  there  are 
scA'eral  arguments  which  may  be  urged  in  favor  of  it.  It  is  first  of  all 
a  democratic  method,  giving  to  the  people  an  immediate  voice  in  the 
selection  of  the  school  official,  who,  next  to  the  teacher,  is  most  closely 

♦Thirteenth  Biennial  Report  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Illinois,  1878- 
80.  p.  64. 

tSixteenth  Biennial  Report  Superintendent  of  Public  In.struction,  lUinoi.s,  1884-6, 
p.  238. 


59 

associated  with  the  worlv  of  educating  their  children.  Moreover,  it  is 
the  method  which  now  prevails  in^  twenty-seven  states  and  two  terri- 
tories. It  has  long  been  practiced  and  the  people  are  familiar  with  it 
and  have  grown  accustomed  to  it.  The  results  achieved  by  it  have  been, 
on  the  whole,  fairly  satisfactory.  The  schools  have  progressed.  Good 
men  have  been  selected,  some  of  them  especialy  so.  On  the  whole  the 
county  superintendents  elected  by  the  people  will  compare  favorably 
both  in  ability  and  devotion  to  the  interests  of  the  schools  with  the  county 
superintendents  chosen  by  other  methods.  Then,  too,  it  is  not  a  bad 
thing  for  a  superintendent  to  be  brought  into  that  close  contact  with  the 
people  which  election  by  the  people  necessitates.  The  canvass  of  the 
county  is  not  a  bad  preliminary  preparation  for  assuming  control  of 
the  county  schools.  It  gives  a  knowledge  of  the  people,  their  manner 
of  living,  their  peculiar  luodes  of  thought,  their  attitude  with  respect 
to  schools  and  their  general  education  needs,  all  of  which  is  necessary 
to  the  most  effective  supervision.  By  forcing  the  candidate  to  get  out 
among  the  people,  to  put  his  "best  foot  forward,"  it  tends  to  break  up 
the  exclusiveness  which  is  not  an  uncommon  fault  among  people  engaged 
in  educational  work.  Books  rather  than  men  tend  to  become  the  object 
of  their  study.  But  the  work  of  the  county  superintendent  is  more 
with  men  than  with  books.  He  must  awaken  the  interest  of  men  and 
women  in  things  educational.  He  must  harmonize  their  differences, 
guide-  their  efforts,  teach  them  without  seeming  to  teach,  lead  them 
without  seeming  to  lead.  The  knowledge  which  comes  from  experi- 
ence with  the  people  is  therefore  a  necessary  qualification  of  the  county 
superintendent.  He  will  be  all  the  better  if  he  be  a  man  of  the  people. 
Finally,  there  can  be  little  doubt  but  that  election  by  the  people  gives 
to  the  county  sliperintendent  a  feeling  of  independence  and  a  courage 
which  election  by  any  other  agency  tends  to  diminish  or  destroy.  It 
is  desiralile  to  have  a  county  superintendent  work  with  a  county  board 
rather  than  under  a  county  board.  And  this  condition  is  perhaps  more 
likely  to  be  attained  if  the  county  superintendent  feels  that  lie  is  respon- 
sible only  to  the  people. 

On  the  other  hand  it  may  ho  said  that  under  this  method  of  elec- 
tion the  county  superintendent  is  not,  as  a  rule,  elected  by  the  people, 
that  is,  by  all  the  people,  but  by  the  members  of  the  dominant  pol- 
itical party.  To  be  eligible  to  nomination  for  the  superintendency  he 
must  reside  in  the  county,  must  be,  as  a  rule,  affiliated  with  the 
party  that  is  numerically  su^ierior  and  must  have  what  is  known  in 
political  parlance  as  '^availability,"  and  this  too  often  is  not  determined 
by  his  promise  or  merits  as  a  supenisor  of  schools.  To  win  the  election 
he  must  subject  himself  to  all  the  annovances  of  "  the  candidate,"  to 
impositions  that  he  would  like  to  resent,  sometimes  to  attacks  on  his 
character  made  merely  for  the  purpose  of  affectino-  the  vote.  If  he  is 
successful  in  the  election  and  wishes  a  second  term,  if  he  needs  it  to 
mature  his  plan?  and  brinjr  to  fruition  those  that  he  has  put  in  operation, 
he  must  divide  liis  attention  l)etween  getting  a  second  nomination  and 


60 

getting  educational  results,  between  educational  policies  and  partisan 
polities.  He  must  be  assessed  as  other  candidates  are  assessed  and 
must,  for  a  time  at  least,  neglect  the  interests  of  the  schools  and  his 
own  proper  field  of  labor  to  conduct  a  political  campaign.  All  this 
from  the  viewpoint  of  school  supervision  seems  a  useless  waste  of  time 
and  energy.  What  has  a  man's  politics  to  do  with  his  merits  as  a 
supervisor  of  schools?     Xothing  at  all. 

Another  objection  to  election  by  the  people  rises  into  view  the 
moment  the  county  superintendency  is  regarded  as  a  professional 
position  requiring  special  educational  qualifications  and  expert  ability. 
The  interests  of  the  schools  of  a  county  obviously  demand  the  best 
talent  available  no  matter  where  it  is  found.  But  election  by  the  people 
narrows,  by  custom  if  not  by  law,  not  merely  to  the  available  citizens 
of  the  county  but  to  the  available  members  of  the  dominant  political 
party,  the  number  of  persons  from  whom  the  superintendent  may  be 
selected.  Why  should  not  the  county  superintendent,  like  the  city 
superintendent,  be  elected  without  regard  to  his  place  of  residence  as 
well  as  without  regard  to  his  political  affiliations? 

From  the  beginning  strong  opposition  to  the  election  of  county  super- 
intendents by.  popular  vote  has  been  manifested  by  leading  educators. 
In  Illinois  the  first  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  urged  that 
county  school  commissioners  be  chosen  by  the  directors  of  the  boards 
of  education  in  each  county  in  the  State.*  His  successor  in  'office  de- 
clared that  "to  remove  the  office  as  far  as  possible  from  the  control  of 
politics,  the  county  superintendent  should  be  elected  by  the  school 
officers  of  each  county,  and  the  question  of  qualification  sliould  be  the 
only  one  at  issue  in  his  election." f  Newton  Bateman,  certainly  one 
of  the  most  enlightened  of  the  early  superintendents,  was  of  the  same 
opinion.  "In  order  to  remove  the  choice  of  these  officers  as  far  as 
possible  from  imjust  political  bias,"  said  he,  "and  to  secure  the  great 
ends  of  ability,  unity,  fidelity  and  vigor  in  the  administration,  of  the 
school  system,  county  superintendents  should  be  elected  by  the  school 
officers  of  the  respective  counties."!  His  immediate  successors  empha- 
sized this  view.  One  of  them  complained  of  the  elective  method  as  as- 
sociating the  county  superintendency  "with  the  noisy  strifes  and  chican- 
eries of  party"  and  another  declared  that  "the  present  elective  system 
often  puts  a  premium  upon  the  unfaithful  performance  of  duty.  When 
continuance  in  office  is  altogether  dependent  upon  popular  will  or  upon 
political  influence  the  strict  and  impartial  performance  of  duty  lies  in  a 
path  beset  with  temptations,  and  if  those  are  ajways  resisted  county 
superintendents  must,  indeed,  be  exempt  from  the  common  infirmities 
of  human  nature  as  seen  at  the  present  day."§  Again  he  says:  "The 
question  may  very  properly  be  asked,  how  ought  the  county  superintend- 
ent of  schools  to  be  chosen?    In  determining  this  question  it  must  not  be 


•First   Report,   Superintendent   of   Public  Instruction,    Illinois.    1855.    p.    25. 

tSecond  Biennial  Report,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Illinois,  1857-58, 
pp.   29-30. 

JPourth  Biennial  Report,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Illinois,  1861-2, 
p.  91. 

§Eleventh  Biennial  Report  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Illinois,  1875- 
76,  p.   426. 


Gl 

forgotten  that  the  great  object  is  to  secure  the  best  man — the  man  most 
competent  and  faitlifnl — the  man  who  will  render  the  most  valuable 
service.  This  being  the  object,  the  manner  of  selection  should  be  de- 
termined by  it.  The  duties  of  the  office  are  not  representative,  judicial 
or  executive,  but  supervisory  and  advisory.  The  duties  of  a  county  sup- 
erintendent are  essentially  the  same  as  those  of  the  city  or  town  sup- 
erintendent; hence,  his  selection  does  not  involve  the  right  of  repre- 
sentation any  more  than  does  the  selection  of  a  city  superintendent. 
It  is  rather  a  question  of  wise  selection  on  the  one  hand  and  of  eligi- 
bility on  the  other."'* 

Similar  opinions  have  been  expressed  by  the  superintendents  of  other 
states.  The  superintendent  of  Texas  for  instance,  in  a  paper  read  in  the 
Department  of  Superintendence,  N.  E.  A.,  1907,  said:  "There  is  some 
debate  as  to  the  manner  of  electing  the  superintendent.  It  is  main- 
tained in  some  quarters  that  he  should  be  elected  by  the  direct  vote  of 
the  people.  This,  in  my  judgment,  is  not  the  best  way  to  select  him, 
because  it  involves  the  expense  of  a  campaign  and  not  infequently  in- 
volves the  schools  in  all  manner  of  political  broils.  The  office  and  the 
officer  should  be  removed  as  far  as  possible  from  the  evil  effects  and  in- 
fluences of  partisan  or  personal  politics,  and  should  be  put  on  a  profes- 
sional basis."  Discussing  this  paper,  the  superintendent  of  New  Jersey 
remarked :  "County  superintendents  should  never  be  elected  by  popular 
vote."  The  state  superintendent  of  Kansas,  in  his  report  for  1905-6 
(page  11),  says:  "The  method  of  electing  a  county  superintendent 
is  wrong.  *  *  «  *  rpj^^  present  system  too  frequently  puts  in 
the  office  of  county  superintendent  those  whose  whole  recommendation 
is  that  they  have  been  loyal  to  the  party  to  which  they  belong.  The 
office  is  a  professional  one  and  should  command  the  highest  talent  of 
the  county." 

A  legislative  committee  of  the  Minnesota  Education  Association,  ap- 
pointed in  1904,  recommended  the  selection  of  county  superintendents 
by  a  non-partisan  county  board  of  education  to  be  selected  from  the 
various  districts  of  the  county,  and  this  plan  was  heartily  supported 
by  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction. f 

In  a  questionaire  on  the  certification  of  teachers,  sent  to  the  county 
superintendents  of  Iowa  in  1908,  the  question  was  incidentally  asked 
whether  they  regarded  the  method  of  electing  countv  superintendents  in 
vogue  in  that  state  (i.  e.  by  the  people)  as  the  best  method.  Of  seventy- 
eight  answers  received  thirty-six  were  in  the  negative,  thirty  answered 
yes  and  twelve  were  doubtful.  The  superintendent  of  Indiana,  a  state 
in  which  county  superintendents  are  elected  by  the  trustees  of  schools, 
declares  that  the  county  superintendents  of  that  state  are  unanimously 
opposed  to  election  by  the  people. 


•Eleventh    Biennial    Report   Superintendent    of   Public    Instruction,    Illinois,    1875- 
76.  p.   42C. 

tFourteenth    Biennial    Report,    Superintendent    of    Public    Instruction,    Minnescta, 

p.  11. 


62 

In  Wisconsin  the  question  has  been  under  consideration  during  the 
past  two  years  by  tlic  .State  Teachers'  Association  and  the  County  Super- 
intendents' Convention.  Tlie  state  superintendent,  in  his  report,  declares 
that  "the  consensus  of  opinion  seems  to  be  that  our  present  system  of 
selecting-  county  superintendents  is  radically  wrong  and  should  be 
changed.''  For  more  than  forty  years,  he  says,  the  method  of  election 
by  the  people  has  been  in  use  in  the  state  and  has  failed  to  make  the 
county  superintendency  a  professional  position.  Before  the  county 
superintendency  can  become  a  profession,  he  insists,  there  must  be  op- 
portunity for  permanence  of  tenure  on  the  part  of  the  superintendent 
and  on  the  part  of  a  county  board  by  whom  he  should  be  selected  the 
right  to  go  beyond  the  limits  of  the  state  if  necessary  in  order  to  secure 
the  best  possible  service.* 

Professor  Cubberley,  in  an  admirable  discussion  of  the  question  un- 
der consideration,  speaks  at  length  of  the  desirability  of  removing 
the  county  superintendency  as  far  as  possible  from  political  influence 
and  opening  up  the  field  of  rural  supervision  so  that  in  time  it  may 
become  as  much  of  a  profession  as  city  supervision  and  the  county 
board  may  seek  anywhere  for  the  most  efficient  superintendent.  His 
remarks  are  worth  quoting  practically  in  full.  ''There  is  no  more 
reason,  educationally,"  he  says,  ''why  we  should  nominate  a  local 
Republican  or  local  Democrat  for  county  superintendent,  and  expect 
him  to  stump  the  county  for  election  than  that  we  should  nominate  a 
Republican  or  a  Democrat  from  among  the  voters  of  a  city  and  ex- 
pect him  to  stump  the  city  for  election  as  a  city  superintendent,  or 
a  high  school  principal,  or  a  grammar  school  principal.  If  it  is  right 
educationally  to  vote  for  one,  then  it  is  right  to  vote  for  the  others; 
and  if  it  is  w-rong  to  vote  for  one,  then  it  is  wrong  to  vote  for  the 
others.  A  county  superintendent  should  be  as  much  of  an  expert 
educational  officer  as  a  city  superintendent,  a  county  horiiculturalist, 
a  county  entomologist  or  a  county  health  officer.  And  the  fact  that 
this  is  not  as  thoroughly  an  established  principle  with  the  mass  of 
educational  men  as  it  is  with  city  superintendents  and  scientific  men 
is  due  to  the  estimate  we  place  upon  the  functions  of  the  county  super- 
intendent *  *  *  *  County  and  rural  supervision  is  today  a  closed 
field.  There  is  no  way  to  enter  it  purely  on  the  basis  of  merit.  More, 
it  is  a  closed  field  to  every  man  not  a  resident  of  the  particular  county 
and  more  or  less  politically  inclined.  Political  affiliations,  political 
availability,  place  of  residence,  and  often  the  political  dominance  of 
one  party  or  the  other  in  the  county — considerations  which  have  no 
more  to  do  with  a  man's  ability  to  be  an  educational  leader  of  the 
schools  of  the  county  than  the  church  he  belongs  to,  the  age  of  his 
wife,  the  name  of  his  baby  or  the  size  of  shoes  he  wears,  are  consider- 
ations which,  nevertheless,  largely  determine  the  selection  of  the  county 
superintendent.  In  the  process  of  nomination  and  renomination  many 
accidents   happen.     A   successful   superintendent   may   be   sure   of   re- 

♦Thirteenth  Biennial  Report,  Department  of  Public  Instruction.  Wisconsin.  1906- 
8,  pp.  17-18. 


G3 

nomination,  but  fail  through  some  eleven-hour  trade  made  on  the 
floor  of  the  convention.  Still  more  often  he  fails  because  his  renomin- 
ation  would  destroy  a  good  geogTaphical  distribution  of  the  ticket  as 
a  whole.  If  renominated,  he  may  be  defeated  at  the  polls  because  of 
a  Koosevelt  or  a  Bryan  landside  which  carries  the  other  party  into  power 
all  along  the  line.  *  *  *  *  Perhaps  he  is  defeated  by  some  third- 
rate  country  school  master,  who  puts  up  the  plea  that  the  county  super- 
intendent deals  with  the  country  schools  and  that,  therefore,-  he  should 
come  from  the  country  rather  than  the  town.  These  are  not  hypo- 
thetical cases.  Tlie  writer  knows  of  at  least  two  actual  cases  to  illus- 
trate each.  These  considerations  are  not  educational  ones,  and  educa- 
tion and  politics  cannot  be  mixed  in  any  proportions  whatsoever  with- 
out harm  to  education.  Certain  fundamental  propositions  must  be 
laid  down  with  reference  to  county  school  supervision,  and  these  must 
be  insisted  upon  with  emphasis.  In  the  first  place,  it  should  offer  a 
■career  for  which  a  good  man  would  be  warranted  in  making  a  care- 
ful educational  and  professional  preparation.  In  the  second  place, 
a  man  should  be  able  to  enter  the  work  purely  on  the  basis  of  merit 
and  free  from  any  unnecessary  and  irrelevant  considerations.  In  the 
third  place,  the  office  in  no  sense  exists  to  reward  old  and  faithful 
teachers,  and  the  position  should  never  be  awarded  as  a  charity.  In 
the  fourth  place,  the  educational  functions  of  the  position  should  be 
paramount  and  the  clerical  and  legal  functions  purely  secondary.  We 
tend  to  emphasize  tlie  county  office  side  of  the  position,  and  then  to 
defend  the  bad  features  of  the  method  of  selection  on  this  ground. 
But  there  is"  no  argument  here  that  cannot  be  made  to  apply  with 
equal  force  to  the  work  of  a  city  superintendent.  We  cannot  insist 
too  strongly  that  the  first  business  of  the  schools  is  the  education  of 
children,  and  that  anything  which  fails  to  promote  this  to  the  maxi- 
mum possible  is  to  the  extent  that  it  fails  a  robbery  of  the  child." 

Enough  has  been  advanced  to  show  that  the  method  of  electing 
county  superintendents  presents  a  question  upon  which,  to  use  the 
language  of  Sir  Eoger  de  Coverley,  "much  mav  be  said  on  both  sides." 
In  considering  any  "method  of  selection  three  questions  naturally  arise; 
first,  which  one  of  these  methods  will  attract  to  the  county  superin- 
tendency  the  better  class  of  superintendents ;  second,  which  will  be  more 
likely  to  select  from  these  candidates  the  best  ones  fitted  for  the  work : 
and  third,  which  will  make  the  tenure  of  office  of  the  efficient  super- 
intendent the  more  secure. 

The  Ter^i  of  Office. 

In  twenty-three  states  and  two  territories  the  county  superintendent, 
or  equivalent  officer,  is  elected  or  appointed  to  serve  two  years.  In 
thirteen  states  the  term  is  four  years,  and  in  three  states,  three  years. 
In  South  Dakota  and  Washington  constitutional  provisions  proliibit  the 
election  of  any  person  to  the  office  of  county  superintendent  of  schools 


64 

for  more  than  two  terms  in  succession.  In  other  parts  of  the  country 
the  same  tenure,  even  of  the  hest  county  superintendents,  is  brought 
about  by  the  custom  of  rotation  in  office. 

Such  constitutional  provisions  and  such  a  political  practice  with  re- 
spect to  the  office  of  county  superintendent  are  plainly  detrimental  to 
the  best  interests  of  the  schools.  The  tenure  of  office  of  the  efficient 
county  superintendent  should  be  long  and  secure.  He  is  expected  to 
formulate  <ind  direct  the  carrying  out  of  the  educational  policy  of  the 
county.  If  he  is  a  competent  superintendent  his  plans  of  work  will 
extend  beyond  two,  three  or  even  four  years.  To  supplant  him  by 
the  -election  of  another  sunerintendent  merely  "to  pass  the  office  around"' 
is  a  species  of  educational  imbecility  which  should  be  frowned  upon 
by  all  who  are  interested  in  the  welfare  of  the  schools  and  of  school 
children.  It  destroys  the  unity  and  the  continuity  of  the  school  work 
of  the  county,  and  discourages  professional  preparation  for  the  work 
of  a  county  superintendent. 

There  is  a  wide  difference  between  the  county  superintendency  and 
the  other  county  offices.  Efficiency  is,  of  course,  as  desirable  in  the  one 
case  as  the  other,  but  the  duties  devolving  upon  the  county  superin- 
tendent are  peculiar.  His  work  is  not  routine  in  character.  He  is  ex- 
pected to  be  an  educational  expert,  a  leader  in  all  educational  afEairs. 
Special  scholastic  qualifications  in  him  are  desirable  and  are  usually 
required.  He  is  expected  to  study  educational  experiments  in-  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  country  and  to  keep  abreast  of  educational  progress. 
Experience  in  the  supervision  of  schools  is  an  especially  valuable  asset. 
If  he  is  the  right  man  in  the  right  place  he  will  consequently  be  far 
better  qualified  for  the  work  of  supervision  at  the  end  of  his  term  of 
office  than  he  was  at  the  beginning. 

The  interests  of  the  schools,  therefore,  demand  the  retention  in  office 
of  the  competent  superintendent.  The  prevalence  of  the  two-year  term 
makes  it  obvious  that  there  is  great  opportunity  for  reform  in  the  inter- 
ests of  the  schools  by  increasing  the  tenure  of  office  of  the  county  su- 
perintendent. 

Salaries. 

The  salaries  of  county  superintendents  in  the  United  State  vary 
from  less  than  one  hundred  dollars  to  seven  thousand  five  hundred 
dollars.  As  a  rule  they  vary  much  in  the  same  state,  for  they  depend 
upon  the  school  population,  or  the  total  population,  or  some  other 
variable  basis.  They  are  sometimes  a  percentage  of  the  money  re- 
ceived by  the  county  superintendent  or  disbursed  as.  for  instance,  in 
Alabama  and  Mississippi;  sometimes  they  are  calculated  on  the  basis 
of  the  school  population  as  in  Kansas  and  Nebraska;  sometimes  upon 
the  total  population  of  the  counties  as  in  Illinois.  In  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee  the  amounts  received  by  county  superintendents  are  fixed 
by  the  county  court.  In  Indiana  they  receive  a  per  diem  compensa- 
tion of  $4.50  for  time  actually  spent  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties. 
The  highest  salaries  are  paid  in  New  Jersey.     Every  county  superin- 


65 

terident  iu  that  state  receives  a  two  tlioiisaiid  dollar  salary  and  $350.00 
for  traveling  expenses.  Salaries  in  California  range  from  $500.00  to 
$4,800.00.  Pennsylvania  in  some  counties  allows  to  the  county  superin- 
tendent a  salary  of  $3,000.00  and  Colorado  in  a  few  counties  $2,800.00.- 
Salaries  in  the  souther  states  are,  as  a  rule,  extremely  low.  Yet  in 
Alabama  and  ^Mississippi  superintendents  may  receive  $1,800.00,  in 
Kentucky  and  Texas  $1,500.00.  and  in  Arkansas  and  South  Carolina 
$1,200.0().  In  Florida  the  maximum  salary  is  $200.00  per  month,  the 
average  annual  salary  being  in  tlie  years  1907  and  1908  $1,129.46. 

The  following  tabulation  shows  the  compensation  of  the  county  su- 
perintendents in  the  various  states  as  expressed  by  the  school  law  in 
each : 

Compensation  of  Counhj  Superintendent. 


state. 


Compensation. 


Delaware 
Florida... 


Georgia. 


Alabama Four    per    cent    on    all    state    public    moneys    legally    disbursed    by 

them,  not  to  exceed  the  sum  of  $1,800  for  any  calendar  year.  .  .  . 

Arizona $1,500    annually   in    counties   of   the    first   class,    and    $300    annually 

in    all    other    counties,    in    all    counties    payable    quarterly    out    of 

tlie   county  school   fund 

Arkansas Each  superintendent  receives  the  same  salary  as  the   county  .iudge 

of  his  county,  bvit  no  superintendent's  salary  shall  exceed  $1,200 
per  year  nor  in  any  case  be  less  than  $600  a  year.     Salaries  are- 

paid  out  of  the  g'eneral  school  fund  of  the  counties 

California Salaries  are  fixed  T>y  county  boards  and  ranp;e  from  $400  to  $4,000. 

Colorado For   the   purpose    of   fixing:   the    amount    of   county    superintendents' 

compensation  the  counties  of  the  state  are  divided  into  seven 
classes  with  salaries  as  follows:  $2,800,  $2,000,  $1,200,  $1,100, 
$800.  $500.  $100.  In  all  but  first  and  second  class  counties 
mileag-e  not  to  exceed  ten  cents  per  mile  for  distance  necessarily 
and  actually  traveled  in  the  performance  of  <luty  may  be  al- 
lowed by  the  county  commissioners,  but  such  allowance  must  not 
exceed   $300   per   annum 

$1,000    per    annum 

Salaries  are  based  upon  the  total  annual  receipts  for  scliool  pur- 
poses in  the  county  and  rang-e  from  $600  to  $2,400  per  annum.  .  . 

Such  amount  as  may  be  allowed  by  the  county  board  of  education 
but  not  to  exceed  $3.00  per  day  for  time  actually  employed  in 
the  discharge  of  his  official  du^es ;  paid  out  of  the  educational 
fimd    furnished    to    the    county - 

$800  to  $1,200  as  determined  by  the  county  board  of  commissioners. 

In  counties  containing  a  population  not  exceeding  25,000,  $1.2.^)0.  in 
counties  containing  more  than  25,000  and  less  than  100,000, 
$1,650,    exceeding   100.000.    $7,500 ••• 

$4.50  per  day  for  each  day  that  he  shall  be  employed  in  the  actual 
performance    of   his    duties 

$1,250  per  year,  office  expenses  and  expenses  incurred  in  attend- 
ance    upon    meetings    called     by    the     superintendent    of    public 

Instruction    ■  •  • 

Kansas In  counties  of  less  than   1,000  school  population  $3.00  for  each  day 

actually  and  necessarily  employed  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties, 
for  not  to  exceed  ISO  days  in  any  one  year:  in  counties  having 
a  school  popidation  of  1.000  and  not  more  than  ll.20ii.  $600  per^ 
annum:  1,200  to  1,500,  $7on  per  annum:  more  tJian  1.500.  $700 
and  $20  per  annum  for  each  additional  1.000  suqb  persons.  No 
.■salary  in  sucli  counties  may  exceed  $1,000.  In  founties  having 
a  population  of  more  than  65.000  the  salary  is  $1,800.  In  counties 
having  more  than  100  school  teachers  employed  exclusive  of  those 
employed  in  cities  of  the  first  and  second  class  the  county  com- 
missioners may  add  to  the  salary  of  $1,000  the  sum   of  $200  per 

annum.     All  salaries  are  paid  out  of  the  county  treasury 

Kentucky Not    less    than    eight    cents    nor   more    than    twenty   ci»nts    for   each 

pupil  child  reported  in  the  census  report  of  the  .sub-district  trus- 
tee of  the  countv,  no  child  being  enumerated  who  is  under  the 
city  school  superintendent  of  a  city  of  the  first,  second,  third  or 
foiirth  class.     No  .salary  shall  be  less  than  $4  00  nor  greater  than 

$1,500    

E  C 


Idaho... 
Illinois , 


Indiana. 
Iowa — 


66 


Compensation  of  County  Superintendenis — Continued. 


State. 


Compensation. 


Louisiana 
Maryland 
Michigan. 


Minnesota  . 

Mississippi 
Missouri 


Montana.. 
Nebraska 


New  Jersey.. 
New  Mexico. 


New  York. 


N.  Carolina  , 


N.  Dakota. 


Oklahoma 


Oregon 


Fixed  by  the  parish  school  board  but  in  no  case  to  be  less  than 
$600    per    annum 

Such  compensation  as  the  board  of  county  school  commissioners 
may    direct 

Determined  by  the  board  of  supervisors  but  shall  not  be  less 
than  $500  per  annum  in  counties  containing  50  school  rooms 
under  his  or  her  supervision  :  not  less  than  $1,000  where  there 
are  100  school  rooms  under  his  supervision  :  and  not  less  tlian 
$1,200  vi^here  there  are  125  school  rooms  under  his  supervision. 
No  salary  may  exceed  $1,800  per  annum.  In  estimating  the 
number  of  school  rooms  in  any  county  graded  schools  under  a 
general  charter  are   included 

Fixed  by  the  county  board  wlien  not  otherwise  provided  by  special 
law,  but  may  not  be  less  than  a  sum  equal  to  $10  for  each 
organized  district  in  the  county  and  not  to  exceed  $1,800  per 
year.  Districts  or  parts  of  districts  consolidated  are  counted 
the  same  as  before  the  consolidation  was  made.  The  county 
board  may  allow  $250  per  year  for  traveling  expenses 

Five  per  cent  of  school  fund  received  by  county,  but  may  be  fixed 
by  the  board  of  supervisors  at  an  amount  between  $1,200  and 
$1  800 

In  counties  of  less"  tlian'  iV.OOO  '  population  "$7'o"o';'  'l'2,666 '  to  '  15,000", 
$800;  15,000  to  18.000.  $900:  18,000  to  21,000,  $1,000;  21,000  to 
24,000,  $1,100;  24,000  to  27,000.  $1,200;  27,000  to  30,000,  $1,300; 
30,000  to  50,000,  $1,400;  50,000  or  more,  $1,500;  $400  is  appropri- 
ated to  each  county  out  of  the  general  revenue  fund  of  the 
state  and  the  remainder  of  the  county  superintendent's  salary  is 
paid  out  of  the  county  treasury 

Based  on  classification  of  counties  determined  by  valuation  of 
property.  There  are  eight  classes  and  salaries  range  from 
$800    to    $2,000 , 

Determined  by  county  commissioners  on  a  basis  of  school  popula- 
tion ;  4,000  population  or  more,  not  less  than  $1,200 ;  2,500  to 
4,000,  $1,000;  1,500  to  2,500,  $800;  less  than  2.500  a  per  diem 
of  not  less  than  $4.00  nor  more  tlian  $5.00  for  each  day  actually 
employed  in  the  duties  of  liis  office,  but  tlie  total  compensation 
in  this  class  shall  not  exceed  $800  per  annum 

$2,000  per  annum,  payable  from  the  state  treasury,  and  traveling 
expenses   not  to  exceed   $350 

Based  on  the  number  of  school  rooms  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
countv  superintendent;    10   school   rooms   or  less.    $300;    11   to   16, 

$600  ;  17  to  25,  $800  ;  26  to  33,  $1,000  ;  34  to  42.  $1,200  ;  43  or  more 
$1,500.  A  salary,  however,  may  not  exceed  one-third  of  the 
total  amount  of  money  collected  from  the  tax  levy  for  general 
school    purposes 

$1,000,  payable  o«t  of  the  free  school  fund  appropriated  for  this 
purpose,  but  may  be  increased  by  a  majority  of  the  supervisors 
from  the  towns  composing  a  school  commissioner's  district,  the 
increase   being   asses.sed   upon   the   towns 

Fixed  by  the  county  board  of  education  but  must  not  be  less  than 
$3.00  per  day  for  time  spent  in  the  service  of  the  public  schools 
and  may  not  exceed  four  per  cent  of  the  disbursements  for 
schools   under   his    supervision 

Determined  by  the  number  of  schools;  1  to  5,  $150;  6  to  10,  $300; 
11  to  15,  $400;  16  to  20,  $500;  21  to  25.  $600;  26  to  30.  $700; 
31  to  35,  $800;  36  to  40,  $900;  41  to  50,  $1,000;  and  $10  for  each 
additional  school  except  when  the  number  exceeds  130  in  which 
case  $5.00  for  each  additional  school  is  allowed.  Mileage  of  ten 
cents   per  mile   is  also   allowed 

Determined  by  school  population.  In  counties  of  1,000  to  1.500, 
$480  ;  1,500  or  more,  $600  per  annum  and  $18  for  each  additional 
1,000  persons;  in  counties  having  a  school  population  of  less 
than  1,000  the  county  superintendent  .'iliall  receive  $3.60  for  each 
day  employed  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties  for  a  number  of 
days  not  to  exceed  100  in  any  one  year.  No  salary  may  exceed 
$1,000  per  annum  and  in  determining  salaries  the  school  popula- 
tion of  cities  of  the  first  and  second  class  is  not  included 

The  salaries  of  each  county  are  fixed  by  law  and  are  payable 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  salaries  of  other  county  officers 


67 


Compcnsalion   of  Count n  Sujicrinlendenis — Concluded. 


State. 


Compensation. 


Pennsylvania. 


S.  Carolina. 
S.  Dakota  .. 


Wyoming 


Tennessee  .. 
Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 
W.Virginia 

Wisconsin  . 


Based  on  the  number  of  schools  within  the  county  superintendent's 
juri.sdiction  ;  100  schools  or  less.  $10  per  school;  $5.00  for  each 
schol  above  100  and  not  over  200  and  $2.00  each  for  each  school 
above  200;  salaries  may  not  be  less  than  $1,000  nor  more  than 
$2,000  per  annum.  In  counties  having  1,200  school  miles  of 
territory,  or  a  scliool  term  exceeding  seven  and  one-half  months 
the  salaries  of  county  superintendents  shall  not  be  less  than  $1,500. 
School  directors  may  increase  salaries,  the  increase  being  taken 
out  of  the  school  fund  appropriated  for  the  county 

The  salaries  in  the  various  counties  are  fixed  by  law  for  each 
county  separately  and  range  from  $300  to  $1,200. 

Determined  by  the  value  of  the  property  in  the  respective  counties 
as  fixed  by  the  state  board  of  equalization,  and  by  the  popula- 
tion of  the  counties.  He  receives  one  mill  on  each  dollar  of  the 
first  $100,000  ;  $100,000  to  $600,000,  three-eights  of  one  mill  ; 
$600,000  to  $1,100,000,  one-fourth  of  one  mill;  $1,100,000  to  $2.- 
600.000,  one-tenth  of  one  mill  ;  above  $2,600,000,  one-twentieth 
of  one  mill.  In  addition  he  is  allowed  $75  for  the  first  1,000 
inhabitants  and  for  each  additional  1,000  or  major  fraction 
thereof,   $50.     No  salary  may  exceed  $1,500 

Fixed   by   county   court 

Based  upon  school  population  including  independent  school  dis- 
tricts;  2,000  or  less,  $900;  2,000  to  3.000,  $1,100;  3,000  to  4,000, 
$1,300;   4,000  to  5,000,   $1,400;   5,000  and  above,   $1,500 

Counties  are  divided  into  fifteen  classes  and  maximum  salaries 
ranging  from  $500  to  $1,600  are  determined  by  the  assessed 
valuation  of  the  property  of  the  respective  counties.  Actual  sal- 
aries are  determiner  by  the  board  of  county  commissioners 

A  per  diem  of  $4.00  and  expenses  not  to  exceed  $2.00  per  day 

Based  on  population  and  payable  out  of  the  state  school  fund ; 
10,000  or  less,  $40  per  thousand;  10.000  to  30,000,  $25;  exceed- 
ing 30,000  $15  ;  fractions  less  than  500  are  rejected  in  calculating 
the  compensation  of  a  county  superintendent  which  may  not  in 
any  case  be  less  than  $200  per  annum 

Salaries  are  determined  by  the  general  law  and  range  from  $400 
to    $2,000 

Determined  by  number  of  schools;  not  more  than  50  schools,  $500; 
50  to  75,  $575;  75  to  100,  $650;  100  to  125,  $725;  and  $2.00  for 
each  additional  school.  The  county  .superintendent  is  allowed 
additional  compensation  for  conducting  examinations  but  in  no 
case  shall  the  salary  exceed   $1,200 

Fixed  by  the  county  board  of  supervisors  and  based  on  population, 
cities  under  the  supervision  of  city  superintendents  of  schools 
being  excluded  ;  5,000  to  9.000,  not  less  than  $500  :  and  not  less 
than  $900  in  county  or  superintendent  districts  containing  more 
than  9,000  inhabitants.  Expenses  incurred  in  attending  conven- 
tions called  by  the  state  superintendent  are  allowed 

Based  upon  population,  there  being  four  classes  of  counties  with 
salaries  ranging  from  $500  to  $900.  Traveling  expenses  are 
allowed     


It  will  be  observed  that  there  is  among  the  states  a  \vid'j  vnr'ation  in 
the  method  of  determining  the  sahiries  of  county  superintendents. 
Sometimes  they  are  fixed  ai'l)itrarily,  sometimes  they  are  based  on  school 
or  census  popuhition,  sometimes  by  the  amount  of  school  funds  dis- 
Inirsed,  sometimes  by  the  number  of  schools  supervi.'^cd  and  sometimes 
by  tiie  area  of  the  county. 

In  few  states  has  there  been  any  attempt  to  ])lace  the  compensation 
of  county  superintendents  on  a  strictly  educational  Ijasis.  Michigan, 
^Minnesota,  New  ^Mexico,  South  Dakota  and  West  Virginia  relate  com- 
pensation to  the  number  of  schools  supervised,  but  no  state  has  yet 
adopted  a  scale  of  salaries  with  the  idea  of  increasing  thereliy  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  county  superintendent  in  the  work  of  sui)ervision.     This 


68 

might  be  done  by  basing  compensation  upon  the  educational  results 
achieved.  These  can  be  determined  only  approximately,  but  so  far  as 
they  can  be  determined  with  some  degree  of  accuracy  they  should  be 
made  to  bear  some  relation  to  the  amount  paid  the  county  superin- 
tendent. 

In  the  earlier  period  of  the  state's  develo])int'nt  when  the  work  of 
a  superintendent  does  not  require  all  liis  tiiiie.  there  is  justification  for 
compensation  on  the  ground  of  moneys  disbursed,  population  and  the 
area  of  the  county,  for  the  reason  tliat  these  determine  to  some  extent 
the  cjuantity  of  his  work.  In  few,  if  any  of  these  states,  however,  is 
the  work  of  a  count}^  superintendent  now  determined  either  by  the 
area  of  his  county,  the  money  disbursed  or  the  number  of  people  who 
happen  to  live  in  it.  If  he  is  conscientious  he  gives  all  his  time  to  the 
performance  of  his  duties,  whether  his  county  be  large  or  small,  whether 
it  contains  •^5,000  or  50,000  pei-sons,  or  whether  the  money  which 
passes  through  his  hands  is  much  or  little.  The  time  element,  therefore, 
is  the  same  with  all.  If  the  area  or  population  of  his  county  increases, 
tlius  bringing  a  larger  number  of  schools  under  his  supervision,  or 
greater  finaiicial  duties  devolve  upon  him,  a  demand  is  thereby  created, 
not  for  an  increase  in  salary,  but  for  the  employment  of  an  assistant. 
A  county  superintendent's  salary  should  not  be  increased  merely  l)ecause 
the  work  required  of  him  becomes  greater  than  he  can  adequately  per- 
form. For  these  reasons  neither  area  nor  population  nor  money  dis- 
bursed is  a  wholly  satisfactory  basis  upon  which  the  salaries  of  county 
superintendents  should  be  determined. 

The  determination  of  salaries  by  tlie  number  of  schools  supervised 
is  also  objectionable  from  the  educational  standpoint.  Such  a  basis 
tends  to  discourage  the  consolidation  of  schools  unless,  as  in  Minnesota, 
districts  consolidated  are  counted  the  same  as  before.  But  in  any  case 
this  method  of  fixing  the  salary  of  a  county  superintendent  implies  that 
he  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  graded  schools  or  schools .  employing  a 
superintendent  independently.  Under  such  a.  method  of  determining 
his  salary  the  county  superintendent  can  not  rightly  be  regarded  as  tlie 
head  of  the  school  system  of  the  county  and  this  it  would  seem  is  his 
proper  place  in  a  well  articulated  state  system  of  education. 

Setting  these  methods  aside,  then,  as  objectionable  from  an  educational 
IJoint  of  view,  let  us  see  whether  there  is  not  a  simple  method  of  classi- 
fication which  if  adopted  would  stimulate  the  superintendent  to  increased 
elTiciency  in  his  worlc. 

Given  counties  of  eqiial  area  and  po]-)ulati()n,  the  time  spent  by  their 
respective  superintendents  in  the  performance  of  their  duties,  we  may 
assume,  will  be  the  same.  The  time  element  being  the  same  in  each 
case,  and  the  quantity  of  work  required  being  also  the  same,  the  element 
of  quality  should  be  the  determining  fnctnr  in  the  matter  of  fixing  their 
compensation. 

Xow  when  the  quality  of  a  county  superintendent's  work  is  taken  into 
account  it  will  be  seen  that  it  depends  upon  the  deoffee  of  his  interest 
in  the  schools  and  the  intelligence  nnd  skill  he  manifests  in  their  super- 


C9 

vision.  The  degree  of  this  interest,  intelligence  and  skill  will  bo  de- 
termined in  some  measure  by  the  results  of  his  eil'tn-t:*.  These  results 
are  manifested  in  many  ways,  but  in  none  more  tangibly  perhaps  than 
the  average  length  of  school  term  in  the  schools  of  his  county,  the  num- 
ber of  children  enrolled  in  the  schools  and  the  regularity  of  their  attend- 
ance. These  manifestations  of  school  interest  and  activity  are  best  and 
most  simply  expressed,  perhaps,  by  the  total  aggregate  days  of  attend- 
ance upon  the  schools  of  his  county.  If  the  amount  of  the  State  fund 
apportioned  to  the  county  su})erintendent  in  payment  of  his  salary  were 
made  to  bear  some  relation  to  the  aggTcgate  days  attendance  upon  the 
-schools  of  his  county  it  would  put  a  premium  upon  the  intelligence  and 
skill  devoted  to  increasing  the  school  interest,  the  enrollment,  the  aver- 
age attendance  and  the  length  of  the  school  term  in  his  county.  The 
basis  of  aggregate  attendance,  therefore,  being  approximately  just  and 
at  the  same  time  encouraging  all  the  activities  of  a  county  superinten- 
dent which  make  him  ethcient,  is  the  basis  upon  which  his  salary  should 
be  determined. 

It  is  obvious,  however,  that  the  county  superintendent  does  not  have 
■as  much  to  do  with  increasing  the  attendance  upon  city  schools  as  with 
the  increase  in  attendance  upon  country  schools  and  the  smaller  graded 
schools.  In  reckoning  the  increase  of  a  county  superintendent's  salary, 
therefore,  the  same  allowance  should  not  be  made  for  increased  attend- 
ance upon  schools  having  indejiendent  supervision  that  should  be  allowed 
for  increase  upon  rural  schools. 

On  the  basis  here  proposed  with  a  minimum  salary  of  $1,350.00  the 
salaries  of  all  county  superintendents  in  the  State  except  two  would  be 
increased  on  the  average  about  three  hundred  dollors.  The  exceptions 
are  Eandolph  and  White  counties,  in  which  counties  the  salaries  would 
remain  the  same. 

The  peculiar  advantages  of  determining  salaries  on  the  basis  of  units 
of  attendance  are,  as  has  already  been  suggested,  the  following :  In  the 
first  place  it  would  put  a  premium  on  every  device  employed  by  the 
county  superintendent  to  increase  the  enrollment  of  the  schools,  the 
average  attendance  and  the  length  of  term.  As  these  de])end  upon  an 
awakening  of  general  interest  and  the  improvement  of  school  conditions^ 
it  would  offer  an  incentive  to  the  county  suix'rintendent  in  all  forms 
of  activity  which  increase  his  efficiency  as  a  superintendent.  In  the 
second  place  it  would  make  the  incroase  in  a  county  superintendent's 
salary  dependent  upon  an  increase  in  total  days  attendance  and  not  upon 
the  will  of  the  Legislature.  That  is  to  say,  the  salaries  of  county  super- 
intendents would  adjust  themselves  autom/jfically. 

The  most  obvious  objection  to  such  classification  is  that  the  statistics 
upon  which  the  computations  would  necessarily  be  based  are  inaccurate. 
But  this  is  a  reflection  upon  the  present  and  past  methods  of  collecting 
statistics.  The  question  is  not"  whether  statistics  are  accurate  now,  but 
Avhetber  they  can  be  made  accurate  in  the  future.  Certainly  they  ought 
to  be  made  so  and  if  the  ]ilan  of  classification  proposed  would  contribute 
to  that  end  it  is  a  point  in  its  favor.  But  it  may  be  said  that  county 
superintendents  wmdd   i)ii(l    their  rrpcu-ts.  or  connive  at  it,  to  increase 


70 

their  compensation.  This  could  be  prevented,  or  at  all  events  the  danger 
could  be  minimized,  by  requiring  affidavits  both  to  teachers'  schedules 
and  to  county  superintendents'  reports.  It  would  not  be  a  bad  thing 
if  this  were  done  now  in  order  to  secure  accuracy.  It  does  not  seem  that 
the  padding  of  reports  of  attendance  would  be  greater  than  the  present 
padding  of  census  reports.  The  padding  of  the  census  is  not  easy  to 
discover.  Almost  all  of  the  states  have  experienced  more  or  less  diffi- 
culty with  respect  to  the  census  reports,  and  "New  Jersey  was  finally 
led  to  abandon  its  census  entirely  in  1901  because  of  evident  and  re- 
peated inaccuracies  in  the  school  census."* 

In  the  matter  of  administration  the  proposed  plan  is  simpfe.  Statis- 
tics of  atendance  in  graded  and  ungraded  schools  are  now  annually  re- 
quired in  all  the  states  and  received  in  the  office  of  the  superintendent 
of  public  instruction.  It  would  be  a  very  simple  matter  to  arrange  for 
a  third  column  in  the  report  showing  total  attendance  or  units  of  at- 
tendance which  might  be  calculated  for  each  countv  by  adding  to  the 
total  attendance  in  ungraded  schools  one-half  the  total  attendance  in 
graded  schools.  From  this  third  column  it  could  be  seen  at  a  glance  the 
salary  to  Avhich  a  county  superintendent  would  be  entitled.  A  statement 
of  these  salaries  would  be  sent  to  the  auditor  whose  warrants  could  be 
isued  upon  it  witliout  any  more  work  or  trouble  than  that  which  is  re- 
quired by  the  present  system.  There  can  be  no  serious  objection  then 
from  the  standpoint  of  administration  to  the  plan  of  determining  county 
superintendents'   salaries  on   a  basis   of   units  of   attendance. 

This,  of  course,  is  more  or  less  theoretical.  The  practical  situation 
in  Illinois  seemed  to  the  commission  to  require  a  reclassification  of  the 
salaries  of  county  superintendents  on  the  basis  of  the  census  population 
of  1900.     Accordingly  the  following  bill  was  introduced: 

Section  1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  People  of  the  State  of  Illinois  represented 
in  the  General  Assevibly :  That  section  27  of  an  Act  entitled,  "An  Act  con- 
cerning fees  and  salaries,  and  to  classify  the  counties  of  this  State  with  refer- 
ence thereto,"  approved  March  29,  1872,  in  force  July  1,  1872,  title  as  amended 
by  Act  approved  March  28,  1874,  in  force  July  1,  1874,  and  amended  May  17, 
1905,  be  and  the  same  is  hereby  amended  so  as  to  read  as  follows: 

Section  27.  County  superintendents  elected  hereafter  shall  receive  for 
their  services  in  counties  which,  according  to  the  census  of  1900,  contained 
a  population  not  exceeding  12,000,  $1,250  per  annum;  in  counties  which, 
according  to  the  census  of  1900,  contained  a  population  of  more  than  12,000 
and  not  exceeding  20,000,  $1,500  per  annum;  in  counties  which,  according 
to  the  census  of  1900,  contained  a  population  of  more  than  20,000  and  not 
exceeding  28,000,  $1,800  per  annum;  in  counties  which,  according  to  the 
census  of  1900,  contained  a  population  of  more  than  28,000  and  not  exceeding 
36,000,  $2,000  per  annum;  in  counties  which,  according  to  the  census  of 
1900,  contained  a  population  of  more  than  36,000  and  not  exceeding  50,000, 
$2,250  per  annum;  in  counties  which,  according  to  the  census  of  1900,  con- 
tained a  population  of  more  than  50,000  and  not  exceeding  75,000,  $2,500  per 
annum;  in  counties  which,  according  to  the  census  of  1900,  contained  a 
population  of  more  than  75,000  and  not  lexceeding  100,000,  $2,750  per  an- 
num, and  in  counties  which,  according  to  the  census  of  1900,  contained  a 
population  of  more  than  100,000,  $7,500  per  annum,  payable  quarterly  from 
the  State  School  Fund:  Provided,  however,  that  the  board  of  supervisors 
or  board   of  county  commissioners   may   allow   additional   compensation    for 


►School   Funds   and   Their   Apportionment,   Cubberley,   p.    120. 


such  services,  payable  quarterly  from  the  county  treasury.  The  Auditor 
in  making  his  warrant  to  any  county  for  the  amount  due  it  from  the  State 
School  Fund,  shall  deduct  from  it,  the  several  amounts  for  which  warrants 
have  been  issued  to  the  county  superintendent  of  said  county,  since  the 
preceding  apportionment  of  the  State  School  Fund. 

Powers  and  Duties. 

The  powers  and  duties  of  county  educational  officers  in  the  different 
states  vary  widely.  In  one  of  the  states  they  arc  suggested  by  the  name 
of  the  otiicer  which  is  county  examiner.  In  Virginia  the  duties  of  a 
division  superintendent  are  fixed  by  the  state  board  of  education.  In 
seventeen  states  the  examination  of  teachers  and  the  granting  of  cer- 
tificates is  a  duty  assigned  to  the  county  official.  In  two  of  these 
states^  namely,  California  and  Montana,  the  power  is  limited  to  the 
issue  of  temporary  certificates,  and  in  South  Dakota  the  certificating 
power  is  exercised  in  conjunction  with  the  state  superintendent.  In 
Xew  York  the  district  commissioner  is  authorized  to  examine  teachers 
"under  such  rules  and  regulations  as  have  been  or  may  bo  prescribed'' 
by  the  commissioner  of  education.  The  visitation  of  schools  is  a  func- 
tion which  would  seem  to  be  essential  to  eft'ective  supervision.  Still 
this  duty  is  not  always  required  of  county  superintendents,  nor  is  the 
duty  of  conducting  institutes  and  other  forms  of  teachers'  meetings 
always  required. 

The  wide  range  of  the  powers  and  duties  of  county  superintendents 
is  well  represented  by  those  which  attach  to  the  office  of  county  super- 
intendent in  Illinois.  In  this  State  the  chief  powers  and  duties  of  the 
county  superintendent  are  as  follows :  To  examine  and  armrove  the 
bond  of  the  township  treasurer;  to  cmplov  a  competent  person  to  take 
the  census  enumeration  and  furnish  the  statistical  statement  required 
of  trustees  of  schools  when  this  duty  is  neglected  by  them ;  to  report 
to  the  superintendent  of  iDublic  instruction ;  to  report  to  the  county  board 
of  supervisors;  to  apportion  the  school  fund  to  the  several  townships 
or  parts  of  townships  in  his  county  in  which  schools  have  been  kept; 
to  execute  a  new  bond  upon  notice  by  the  county  board;  to  sell  town- 
ship fund  lands;  to  issue  certificates  of  purchase  and  report  to  the 
county  board  and  state  auditor;  to  register  the  names  of  applicants 
for  normal  school  and  university  scholarships,  and  to  liold  or  cause  to 
be  held  examinations  for  the  same;  to  visit  each  school  in  the  county  at 
least  once  a  year;  to  give  teachers  and  school  officers  such  directions 
in  the  science,  art  and  method  of  teaching  and  in  regard  to  courses  of 
study  as  he  may  deem  expedient;  to  act  as  the  official  adviser  and  con- 
stant assistant  of  the  school  officers  and  teachers  of  his  county ;  to 
conduct  a  teachers'  institute  and  to  attend  and  encourage  the  formation 
of  other  teachers'  meetings  and  to  assist  in  their  management;  to 
labor  in  every  practicable  way  to  elevate  the  standard  of  teaching  and 
improve  the  condition  of  common  schools  in  his  count^'  •  to  examine  at 
least  once  each  year  all  books,  accounts  and  vouchers  of  every  town- 
ship treasurer  in  his  coimtv :  to  examine  all  notes,  bonds,  mortgages 
and  other  evidences  of  indebtedness  which  the  townshiii  treasurer  holds 


officially;  to  give  notice  in  certain  cases  of  the  election  of  trustees,  of 
any  regular  or  special  election  and  of  the  election  of  school  directors; 
to  investigate  and  detorniine  all  matters  pertaining  to  changes  in  tlie 
boundaries  of  school  districts  which  may  come  to  him  by  appeal  from 
the  decision  of  the  trustees  of  schools;  to  hold  meetings  at  least  quar- 
terly for  the  examination  of  teachers  and  to  grant  certificates  to  such 
persons  as  may  be  qualilied  to  receive  them-;  to  require  township  trus- 
tees to  report;  to  direct  in  what  manner  township  treasurers  shall  keep 
their  books  and  accounts;  to  bring  suit  against  the  county  collector  for 
failure  to  pay  the  amount  due  on  the  auditor's  warrant;  to  remove 
any  school  director  from  office  for  wilful  failure  to  perform  his  duties 
and  to  employ,  with  the  approval  of  the  county  board,  such  assistant 
or  assistants  as  he  needs  for  the  full  discharge  of  his  duties. 

The  powers  and  duties  of  county  and  division  superintendents  of 
schools,  of  county  and  district  commissioners  of  schools  and  of  county 
examiners  are  set  forth  in  the  following  table : 

Table  II. 

Showing  the  Manner  of  Election,  Term,  Salary  and  Host  Important 
Powers  and  Duties  of  County  Superintendents  in  the  United  States. 


state. 


Elections.        Term. 


Salary. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


Alabama. 


By  people 


Arizona. 


By  people  in 
counties  of 
1st  class.  In 
others  pro- 
bate judge 
acts 


4  per  cent  on  state 
moneys  disburs- 
ed, not  to  ex- 
ceed $1800 


$1500  in  counties  of 
1st  class;  $300  in 
others  and  trav- 
eling expenses 
'not  to  exceed 
$250 


To  receive  and  disburse 
county  funds.  2.  To  notify 
district  trustees  of  amount  ap- 
portioned each  district.  3.  To 
keep  record  of  amount  re- 
ceived and  paid  out  by  him. 
4.  To  furnish  State  superin- 
tendent annual  report.  5.  To 
pay  teachers  monthly.  6.  To 
act  as  general  executive 
school  officer  of  the  county.  . 


To  apportion  school  money. 
2.  To  draw  warrant  on  county 
treasurer  for  necessary  ex- 
penses. 3.  To  preside  over 
institutes.  4.  To  conduct  ex- 
aminations. 5.  To  distribute 
laws  to  schools  officers.  6.  To 
keep  record  of  his  official  acts. 
7.  To  appoint  trustees  to  fill 
vacancies.  S.  To  visit  each 
scliQol  twice  a  year.  9.  To 
rei|uire  trustees  to  repair 
school  buildings.  10.  To  grade 
schools     


73 


Table  2 — ContinuGd. 


State. 


Election. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


Arkansas 


California. 


Colorado 


Delaware. 


Florida. 


By  people 


$G0O-$120O. 


By  people 


$50(>-$4800. 


By  people 


$10(>-$2800. 


Appointed  by 
governor.... 


$1,000. 


By  people 


$.iO-$200  per  month 
based  on  annual 
receipts  of  coun- 
ty  


1.  To  examine  and  license 
teachers.  2.  To  issue  certifi- 
cates. 3.  To  keep  record  of 
age,  name,  sex,  address  and 
nativity  of  persons  granted 
certificates.  4.  To  superin- 
tend schools.  5.  To  appoint 
persons  to  assist  in  holding 
institutes  and  examinations. 
6.  To  report  annually  to  State 
superintendent     

1.  To  apportion  county  funds. 
2.  To  suspend  school  if  aver- 
age daily  attendance  is  five  or 
less.  3.  To  determine  indebt- 
edne.ss  of  lapsed  districts  and 
draw  requisition  upon  county 
auditor  in  payment  of  .same. 
4.  To  visit  each  school  once 
a  year.  5.  To  preside  over  in- 
stitutes. 6.  To  grant  tempor- 
ary certificates.  7.  To  ap- 
prove and  reject  plans  for 
school  houses.  8.  To  grade 
each  school.  9.  To  appoint 
trustees  to  fill  vacancies 

1.  To  visit  schools.  2.  To  ex- 
emine  accounts  of  district  of^- 
ficers.  3.  To  keep  record  of 
his  official  acts.  4.  To  hold 
teachers'  associations.  5.  To 
publish  annually  .statement  of 
school  funds  apportioned  to 
the  county.  6.  To  appoint  di- 
rectors when  district  fails  to 
elect.     7.  To  grant  certificates. 


1.  To  advi.se  and  assi.st  teachers. 
2.  To  promote  knowledge  of 
schools  and  school  system.  3. 
To  visit  each  school  once  a 
year.  4.  To  report  to  county 
school  commissioner  and  to 
state  board.  5.  To  suspend 
certificates.  6.  To  frame  ex- 
amination questions  and  com- 
pile li.st  of  text  books  when 
requested  by  State  board.  7. 
To    examine    teachers 


1.  To  visit  schools.  2.  To  con- 
fer with  school  supervisors. 
3.  To  look  after  school  build- 
ings and  fund.s.  4.  To  hold 
examinations  and  grant  cer- 
tificates.  5.  To  revoke  certi- 
ficates. 6.  To  suspend  or 
close  schools.  7.  To  recom- 
mend removal  of  teachers  to 
Board  of  Public  Instruction. 
9.  To  take  scliool  census 


74 

Table  2 — Continued. 


State. 


Election. 


Salary. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


Georgia. 


Idaho. 


Illinois. 


Indiana. 


Iowa 


By    county 
board  of  ed 
ucation 


By  people 


By  people 


By    township 
trustees 


By  people 


Fixed  by  county 
board:  not  to  ex- 
ceed $3.00  a  day 
for  timeactnally 
employed  in  dis- 
charge of  duties.  1. 


$800-$1200,  fixed  by 
county  board  of 
commissioners 


*In  counties  of  1st 
class  $1200,  2d 
class  $1650,  3d 
class  $7500 


4.50  per  day  for 
time  employed 
in  discharge  of 
duties 


$1250  and  traveling 
expenses 


To  visit  each  school  once 
during:  school  term.  2.  To 
audit  all  accounts  of  teachers. 
3.  To  report  to  grand  jury  at 
each  spring  term  of  court.  4. 
To  make  monthly  statements 
to  State  school  commissioner, 
5.  To  be  secretary  of  county 
board     


,  To  visit  each  school  during 
each  school  term  and  remain 
at  least  a  half  day.  2.  I'k) 
require  school  trustees  to  le- 
pair  school  property.  3.  To 
ascertain  whether  boundaries 
of  district  are  definitely  de- 
scribed and  report  to  county 
commissioners  if  tliey  a*re  in- 
correctly described.  4.  To 
srant  and  revoke  certificates. 
5.  To  appoint  trustees  for 
nev.'ly  organized  school  vacan- 
cies      


1.  To  sell  township  fund  lands. 
2.  To  register  applicants  for 
admission  to  Normal  Uni\er- 
sity  and  University  of  Illi- 
nois. 3.  To  visit  each  school 
in  county  once  a  year.  4.  To 
conduct  institutes.  5.  To 
pass  on  boundary  disputes  ap- 
pealed from  trustees.  6.  To 
grant  and  revoke  certificates. 
7.  To  require  reports  from 
board  of  trustees.  S.  To  re- 
new certificates.  9.  To  re- 
move directors  for  neglect  of 
duty     


1.  To  attend  township  institutes. 
2.  To  conduct  institvites.  3. 
To  decide  controversies  aris- 
ing under  school  law.  4.  To 
see  that  interest  on  school 
fund  is  paid  and  apportioned. 
5.  To  hold  examinations.  6. 
To  grant  and  revoke  certifi- 
cates.    7.  To  visit  schools.... 


1.  To  conduct  examinations.  2. 
To  revoke  certificates.  3.  To 
report  annually  to  State  sup- 
erintendent. 4.  To  see  that 
school  laws  are  obeyed.  5. 
To   decide   controversies 


♦Counties  are  classified  on  the  basis  of  population.  Counties  containing  a  popu- 
lation of  not  exceeding  twenty-five  thousand  inhabitants  are  counties  of  the  first 
class.  Counties  of  the  second  class  contain  a  population  of  more  tlian  twenty- 
five  thousand  and  less  than  one  hundred  thousand.  Counties  containing  a  popula- 
tion exceeding  one  hundred  thousand  belong  to  the  third  class.  There  is  but  one 
county  in  this  class,  namely,  Cook  county. 


75 


Table  2 — Continued. 


State. 


Klectior.        Term. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


Kansas. 


Mississippi  . . 


By  people  — 


By  people 


Missouri By  people 


Montana By  people 


In  proportion  to 
school  popula- 
tion; not  to  ex- 
ceed $1000 


5  per  cent  of  school 
fund  rece  i  V  ed 
b  V  county. 
Minimum,  $800; 
maximum  , 
$18^0* 


$200-$1500,  depend- 
ing: on  school 
population 


Counties  of  1st 
class,  $2000;  2nd. 
3rd,  4th  and  5th 
classes,  $1500 ;6th 
class,  $1200:  7th 
class,  .$800,  8th 
class,  $600.  Clas- 
sification is  on 
basis  of  valua- 
tion  


1.  To  visit  each  school  once  each 
term  of  6  months.  2.  To 
examine  accounts  of  district 
officers.  3.  To  hold  annual 
meetings  in  each  district  to 
elevate  standard  of  education. 
5.  To  keep  complete  record  of 
his  official  acts.  6.  To  keep 
record  of  semi-annual  state 
and  county  apportioned  school 
funds.  7.  To  apportion  county 
fund.  8.  To  leport  annually 
to   State   superintendent 


To  keep  record  of  official  acts. 
2.  To  conform  manner  of 
keeping  reports  to  recom- 
mendations of  State  superin- 
tendent. 3.  To  preserve  all 
reports  of  school  officers 


To  forward  necessary  blanks 
to  school  officers.  2.  To  or- 
ganize institutes  and  require 
teachers  to  attend.  3.  To  for- 
mulate course  of  study  and 
plan  for  grading  schools  in 
county.  4.  To  hold  examina- 
tions. 5.  To  visit  and  in.'jpect 
schools     


To  have  general  supervision 
of  schools  and  visit  each  once 
a  year.  2.  To  keep  record  of 
his  official  acts.  3.  To  decide 
matters  of  controversy  relat- 
ing to  school  law.  4.  To  as- 
certain whether  district  boun- 
daries are  definitely  described. 
.5.  To  apportion  county  funds. 
6.  To  issue  certificates  valid 
until  next  regular  examina- 
tion      


♦The  board  of  supervisors  may  fix  the  salary  at  an  amount  between   |1,200  and 
$1,800.     The  average  salary  is  $1,128.90. 


76 


Table  2 — Continued. 


State. 


Election. 


Term. 


Salary . 


Powers  and  Duties. 


Nebraska 


By  people  . . . 


New  Jersey...  By  state  board 
of  education. 


New  Mexico.. 


New  York 


N.  Carolina.. 


North  Dakota. 


Oklahoma 


By  people 


By  people 


By  county 
board  of edu 
cation 


By  people  ... 


By  people 


Fixed  by  county 
commissioners 
in  proportion  to 
school    popula 
tion,  $800-$1200. 


$2000. 


$30O-$1500,  depend 
ing  on  number 
of  school  rooms 
in  county..,.. 


$1000. 


Fixed  by  county 
board 


From  $150  up,  de- 
pending  on 
number  of 
schools 


To  visit  each  school  once  a 
year.  2.  To  hold  examina- 
tions and  grant  certificates.  3. 
To  examine  reports'  of  district 
boaids.  4.  To  report  annual- 
ly to  State  superintendent.  5. 
To  act  as  executive  oiticer  for 
free  high  school  law 


1.  To  supervise  schools  of  coun- 
ty. 2.  To  apportion  school 
money.  3.  To  appoint  mem- 
bers of  board  of  education  in 
certain  cases.  4.  To  report 
annually  to  State  superinten- 
dent. 5.  To  condemn  school 
buildings     


1.  To  supervise  methods  of  in- 
struction. 2.  To  consult  school 
directors  concerning  improve- 
ment of  schools.  3.  To  or- 
ganize, disorganize,  or  change 
boundaries  of  any  district.  4. 
To  hold  teachers'  meetings. 
5.   To  apportion  county  funds. 

1.  To  visit  and  examine  schools. 
2.  To  order  alterations  and 
repairs  of  school  houses.  3. 
To  condemn  school  houses.  4. 
To  examine  teachers  in  cer- 
tain   cases    


1.  To  hold  teachers'  meetings 
in  each  township.  2.  To  at- 
tend State  Teachers'  Associa- 
tion. 3.  To  report  annually 
to  State  superintenaent.  4. 
To  suspend  teachers 


To  advise  teachers.  2.  To 
carry  into  effect  instructions 
of  State  superintendent.  3. 
To  convene  teacliers  once  a 
month.  4.  To  instruct  school 
officers  in  keeping  records.  5. 
To  decide  questions  of  contro- 
versy. 6.  To  apportion  county 
fund.  7.  To  revoke  certifi- 
cates     

1.  To  see  that  annual  reports  of 
clerks  are  correctly  made.  2. 
To  fill  vacancies  in  board  of 
directors.  3.  To  furnish  coun- 
ty clerks  witli  description  of 
boundary  of  each  .district.  4. 
To  divide  county  into  con- 
venient  number   of   districts.. 


*In  counties  of  less  than  1,000  school  population,  $3.00  per  day  for  time  spent 
in  discharge  of  duties.  In  counties  of  1,000  to  l,o00  scliool  population,  $400.  In 
counties  of  1,500  scliool  population,   $500.  and  $15   for  each  additional   one  hundred. 


77 


Table  ;2— Continued. 


State. 


Election.        Term 


Powers  and  Duties. 


Oregon 


Pennsylavnia. 
SouthCarolina 


By  people 

By  directors... 
By  people 


South  Dakota. 


Teenessee 


Texas . 


By  people 


By   county 
court 


By  people.  In 
certain  rases 
county 
judpeactstfx 
officio 


Utah By  people 


$300-$2500. 


$1000 -$2000. 
$30O-$1200.. 


Fixed  by  law  and 
based  on  popu- 
lation and  ass- 
essed valuation . 


Fixed  by  county 
court 


$900-$1500. 


$50O-$1600. 


1.  ,To  visit  schools  annually.  3. 
To  apportion  county  fund.  3. 
To  purchase  library  books 
with  assistance  of  directors. 
4.  To  appoint  librarian.  5. 
To  enforce  course  of  study. 
6.    To   decide   appeals 

1.  To  visit  schools.  2.  To  grant 
and  annul  certificates.  3.  To 
call    teachers'    institutes 

1.  To  visit  schools  annually.  2. 
To  attend  annual  settlement 
of  county  treasurer  with 
Comptroller  General.  3.  To 
report  annually  to  county 
.judge  all  claims  filed,  audited, 
allowed  and  ordered.  4.  To 
report  annually  to  county 
treasurer     


1.  To  keep  record  of  official  acts. 
2.  To  keep  a  record  of  candi- 
dates for  certificates.  3.  To 
apportion  county  fund.  4.  To 
hold  Institutes.  5.  To  encour- 
age formation  of  Teachers' 
Reading  Circle.  6.  To  clo.se 
school  for  good  and  sufficient 
cause.  7.  To  grant  and  re- 
voke certificates  in  conjunc- 
tion with  State  superinten- 
dent     ■  .. 


,  To  supervise  schools.  2:'  To 
confer  with  teachers  and  di- 
rectors. 3.  To  hold  examina- 
tions and  issue  certificates.  4. 
To  grade   schools 


To  confer  with  teachers  and 
trustees.  2.  To  organize  and 
hold  institutes  for  white  and 
colored  teachers.  3.  To  ex- 
amine all  contracts  between 
trustees  and  teachers.  4.  To 
appoint  county  board  of  ex- 
aminers     

.  To  superintend  county 
schools.  2.  To  decide  contro- 
versies. 3.  To  administer 
oath  of  office  to  school  offi- 
cers. 4.  To  hold  in.stitutes. 
5.   To  appoint  a  deputy 


78 


Table  S— Continued. 


State. 


Election.     1  Term. 


Powers,  and  Duties. 


\'ermont 


\'irginia 


Washington  .. 


West  Virginia 


Wisconsin  .. . 


By  governor 
and  superin- 
tendent   


Appointed  by 
state  board 
of  education 


By  people 


By  people  .. 


By  people  ... 


$4.00  per  day  and 
expenses  not  to 
exceed  $2.00  per 
day 


$2O0-$5OO. . 


Maximum,  $500 


$500-$1200,  in  pro- 
portion to  num 
ber  of  schools  . , 


Fixed  by  county 
board  with  max- 
imum depend 
ing  on  popula 
tion 


To  make  necessai-y  arrange- 
ments for  teachers'  institutes. 
2.  To  take  measures  to  secure 
attendance  at  institutes,  to 
give  assistance  and  furnish 
such  statistical  information  as 
may  be  required.  3.  To  issue 
certificates    


1.  To  register  applicants  for 
certificates.  2.  To  make  spec- 
ial reports  to  the  Superinten- 
dent of  Public  Instruction.  3. 
To  inspect  the  record  and  ac- 
count books  of  district  clerks. 

4.  To  prepare  a  scheme  for 
apportioning  state  and  county 
school  funds  among  the  school 
districts  witliin  each  county 
under  his  supervision.  5.  To 
affect  arrangements  for  tlie 
supply  of  text  books  to  chil- 
dren. 6.  To  hear  appeals.  7. 
To  visit  schools.  8.  To  assist 
in  the  organization  and  man- 
agement of  county  institutes. 
9.  To  keep  a  record  of  his 
official  acts    

1.  To  enforce  course  of  study. 
2.  To  administer  oath  of  of- 
fice to  school  officers.  3.  To 
keep  transcript  of  school 
boundaries.  4.  To  grant  tem- 
porary and  special  certificates. 

5.  To  suspend  teachers.  6. 
To  visit  schools  of  county  once 
a  year.  7.  To  appoint  school 
officers  to  fill  vacancies.  8. 
To  apportion  school  funds.  9. 
To  hold  teachers'   institutes. . 


To  decide  appeals.  2.  To 
countersign  certificates.  3.  To 
decide  location  of  school  house 
when  school  board  disagree. 
4.  To  report  annually  to  State 
superintendent.  5.  To  visit 
schools    annually    


To  visit  schools  annually.  2. 
To  report  annually  to  county 
board  of  supervisors.  3.  To 
organize  and  conduct  insti- 
tutes. 4.  To  order  district 
board  to  repair  school  build- 
ings. 5.  To  examine  and  li- 
cense   teachers    


79 


Table  2  —Concluded. 


State. 

Election. 

Term. 

Salary. 

Powers  and  Duties. 

Wyoming  — 

By  people.... 

2 

$500~$900 

1.    To    report    annually   to    State 

•sviperintendent.      2.  To  distrib- 
ute lilanks  to  districts.     3.  To 
divide     county     into     districts 
and  to  altt'r  and  change  boun- 
daries.  4.   To  conduct  examin- 
ations.     5.    To    dismiss    teach- 
ers.     6.    To    hear    and    deter- 
mine      appeals       of       district 
boards.     7.   To  hold  institutes. 
8.   To  apportion  county  funds. 

Qualifications. 

Twenty-three  of  the  forty-eight  states  and  territories  require  of 
county  superintendents  and  examiners  special  educational  nualifications, 
usually  a  first  grade  certificate.  It  would  naturally  be  expected  that 
in  those  states  in  which  the  county  official  certificates  teachers  scholas- 
tic qualifications  would  be  required,  but  of  the  seventeen  states  in 
which  this  power  is  exercised  five,  namely,  Colorado,  Illinois,  Maryland, 
Xew  York  and  Vermont,  make  no  requirements  whatever.  In  Cali- 
fornia, although  the  county  superintendent  may  in  certain  cases  grant 
temporary  certificates  and  is  a  member  of  the  county  board  which  ex- 
amines teachers  and  grants  certificates,  no  scholastic  qualifications  are 
required  of  him  by  law.  In  Tennessee  he  is  required  to  possess  liter- 
ary and  scientific  attainments  and  skill  in  the  practice  of  teaching.  In 
Xew  Jersey  a  state  certificate  is  required,  and  it  will  be  remembered 
that  this  is  the  state  in  which  county  superintendents  receive  the  highest 
compensation.  Xorth  Dakota  requires  its  superintendents  in  counties 
in  which  the  salary  is  one  thousand  dollars  or  more  to  hold  a  state 
certificate  of  the  first  gi-ade  or  to  be  a  graduate  of  a  reputable  normal 
school  or  higher  institution  of  learning.  Superintendents  in  Indiana 
must  have,  at  the  time  of  their  election,  a  thirty-six  months  state  license, 
a  life  license  or  a  professional  license.  In  Wisconsin  a  special  county 
superintendent's  certificate  is  provided  for.  Its  requirements  are  the 
same  as  for  a  first  grade  county  certificate  and  in  addition  an  examina- 
tion upon  school  law  and  the  organization,  management  and  super- 
vision of  district  schools.  This  certificate,  together  with  eight  months' 
experience  in  teaching  in  the  public  schools  of  Wisconsin,  constitutes  a 
legal  qualification  to  hold  the  office  of  counts  superintendent  of  schools 
or  to  teach  in  any  public  school  in  the  state  for  wliich  a  first  grade 
county  certificate  is  a  legal  qualification.  The  certificate  remains  in 
force  until  revoked  by  the  state  superintendent  according  to  law.  Five 
states,  while  requiring  no  snecific  educational  qualifications  on  the  part 
of  the  county  superintendent,  do  make  some  provision  general  in  its 
nature.  Florida,  for  instance,  requires  onlv  that  the  superintendent 
l)e  "in  full  sympathy  with  the  public  educational  system  of  the  State." 
Ten   states    require   experience    in   teaching.      The   lowest   requirement 


80 

is  eight  mouths.  Several  of  the  states  require  two  years.  Thirteen 
states  make  no  provision  in  regard  to  the  educational  qualiiications  for 
those  who  are  to  supervise  their  rural  schools.  The  following  table 
will  show  the  educational  qualifications  of  county  superintendents  or 
equivalent  officials  in  all  the  states  in  which  such  qualifications  are  re- 
quired : 

Table  III. 

Showing  ike  Qualifications  of  the  County  Supennteildents  {or  Equiva- 
lent Officers)  Required  in  the  Several  States. 


State. 


Qualifications. 


Arkansas . 


Delaware 


Florida... 
Georgia  .. 
Idaho  

Indiana  .. 

Iowa 

Kansas ... 

Kentucky 


Louisana. 
Michigan 


Mississippi 


Missouri  . 
Montana 


Nebraska  

New  Jersey.. 
New  Mexico. 


1.  Must  have  attained  the  age  of  25  years,  must  have  taught  at 
least  twenty-four  months  in  the  county  within  five  years  preced- 
ing his  candidacy,  and  must  hold  at  the  time  of  his  candidacy  a 
first  grade  teacher's  license,  to  be  approved  by  the  State  super- 
intendent, a  professional  teacher's  license,  or  a  State  teacher's 
license    

1.  Must  possess  good  moral  character.  2.  Must  have  had  at  least 
20  montlas'  experience  in  teaching.  3.  Must  -hold  certificate  of 
graduation  from  some  reputable  college  or  normal  school,  or  an 
unexpired  certificate  of  the  highest  grade  granted  to  teachers  in 
this  State.  4.  Must  become  a  resident  of  the  county  for  which 
he  is  appointed  and  must  reside  therein  during  his  term  of 
office     

1.  To  possess  good  moral  character.  2.  To  be  temperate,  upright, 
responsible,  competent  and  in  full  sj^mpathy  with  public  educa- 
tioftal    system    of   the    State - 

1.  To  be  examined  by  president  of  county  board.  2.  To  stand 
satisfactory  examination,  taking  into  consideration  moral  char- 
acter  and    business   qualifications 

1.  To  hold  first  grade  certificate.  2.  To  have  taught  two  years  in 
Idaho,  one  of  which  while  holding  first  grade  certificate.  3.  To 
be    25    years    of   age 

1.  To  hold  at  time  of  election  a  thirty-six  months'  state  license,  a 
life  or  a  professional  license 

1.  To  hold  first  grade  certificate,  a  state  certificate  or  a  life  diploma. 

1.  To  hold  professional  certificate,  a  first  grade  certificate  or  a 
state  certificate  or  be  a  gradviate  of  an  accredited  college  or 
normal  school.      2.  To  have  taught  18  months 

1.  To  possess  good  moral  character.  2.  To  possess  ability  to  man- 
age common  school  interests  efficiently.  3.  To  possess  good 
English  education.  4.  To  be  24  years  of  age.  5.  To  be  a  citizen 
of  Kentucky.  6.  To  have  resided  two  years  next  preceding  elec- 
tion in  this  State,  and  one  year  in  county  for  which  he  is  a 
candidate.  7.  To  hold  state  diploma  or  a  state  certificate  or  a 
certificate  of  qualification  of  grade  of  first-class  county  certificate. 

1.  To  possess  high  moral  character  and  be  a  practical  educator.  .  . 

1.  To  have  had  12  months'  experience.  2.  To  be  a  graduate  of 
college,  university  or  state  normal  school,  or  hold  state  certifi- 
cate, or  hold  first  grade  certificate  whicli  only  qualifies  the  holder 
to  hold  office  of  commissioner  in  county  in  which  such  certifi- 
cate    is    granted 

1.  To  be  21  years  of  age.  2.  To  be  a  qualified  elector  and  a  resi- 
dent citizen  of  state  four  years  and  of  county  two  years  pre- 
ceding his  election.  3.  To  pass  an  examination  on  branches  re- 
quired for  first  grade  license  and  in  addition  on  the  art  of 
teaching     

1.  To  be  21  years  of  age.  2.  To  have  re.^ided  in  county  at  least 
one  year  prior  to  election.  3.  To  hold  first  grade  county  certifi- 
cate,   normal    or    State    certificate 

1.  To  hold  highest  grade  county  certificate.  2.  To  be  a  citizen  of 
tlie  United  States.  3.  To  have  resided  one  year  in  state  and  one 
year  in  county  in  which  he  is  a  candidate.  4.  To  have  12 
months'    successful    experience    in    teaching 

1.  To  hold  first  grade  certificate  in  this  state  and  in  force  at  time 
of   his    election 

1.    To   hold   state   teacher's   certificate 

1.  To  possess  culture  and  practical  experience  and  learning  in 
those  branches  of  education   taught  in   the  public  schools 


81 

Tabic  3 — Concluded. 


state.  Qualifications. 


North  Carolina  ..]1.  To  be  a  practical  teacher.  2.  To  have  two  years'  experience  in 
teaching.  3.  To  be  a  man  of  liberal  education  and  to  be  other- 
wise qualified  to  discharge   the  duties   of  his  office 

North  Dakota....  1 1.  To  be  25  years  of  asre.  2.  To  hold  highest  grade  state  certifi- 
cate   or   to    be   a    .graduate   of   some    reputable   university,    college 

I     or    normal    school 

Oivlahoma il.  To  hold  first  grade  certificate  or  be  a  graduate  of  some  institu- 

'     tion    of    learning 

Oregon  i.    To   have   taught   in   state   nine    months.      2.    To   hold   first   grade 

I     county  certificate,  a  state  diploma  or  a  state  certificate 

Pennsylvania....  1.    To    possess    diploma    or    state    certificate    from    college    or    state 

normal    school,    a    county    certificate    issued    one    year    prior    to 

I     election    or   a   certificate   of   competency   from    the    state    super in- 

I     tendent.     2.  To  have  had  successful  experience  in  teaching  within 

three    years   of   his   election 

South  Dakota.... il.  To  hold  first  grade  certificate  or  certificate  of  higher  grade  valid 

in     South    Dakota 

Tennessee |l.   To  possess  literary  and   scientific  attainments   and  skill   in   the 

theory   and   practice   of   teaching 

Texas il.    To   hold   first   grade    permanent   certificate.      2.    To    possess   good 

I     moral   character  and   executive   ability 

Utah  11.    To   hold   certificate    not   lower   than    grammar    grade.      2.    To    be 

qualified    elector    in    county 

Washington ]1.  To  have  taught  nine  months.     2.  To  hold  state  certificate  or  life 

1     diploma  or  first  grade   common  school  certificate 

Wisconsin il.  To  have  taught  in  state  eight  months.     2.  To  hold  county  certifi- 

I  cate    • , 

The  following  states  have  no  county  superintendents :  Connecticut,  Maine,  Mas- 
sachusetts.  Nevada,  New  Hampshire,  Ohio,  Rhode  Island. 

The  following  states  provide  no  qualifications:  Alabama,  Arizona,  California, 
Colorado,  Illinois,  Maryland,  Minnesota,  New  York,  South  Carolina,  Vermont,  Vir- 
ginia, West  Virginia  and  Wyoming. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  tendency  is  towards  hifjher  standards 
of  qualification  for  county  superintendents.  This  tendency  is  mani- 
fested in  the  recommendations  of  state  superintendents  and  lefrislative 
committees.  The  legishitive  committee  of  the  Louisiana  School  Board 
Association,  for  instance,  at  a  meetino;  held  Anril  10,  1908,  recom- 
mended that  "hereafter  no  person  may  be  appointed  to  the  office  of 
parish  superintendent  of  education  without  first  having  obtained,  under 
regulations  prescribed  by  the  State  Board  of  Education,  a  certificate  of 
eligibility  or  qualification  for  that  office."  The  arguments  advanced  in 
favor  of  this  recommendation  are  that  it  is  the  most  import^mt  office 
in  tiie  educational  system;  it  should  be  removed  as  far  as  possible 
from  political  influence  and  should  be  made  a  strictly  professional 
position.  Such  recommendations  are  but  the  visible  signs  of  a  general 
movement  in  educational  thought.  "In  a  general  way,"  says  Prof. 
Cubberley,  "it  may  be  said  that  educational  opinion  has  crystallized  on 
the  idea  that  the  certification  of  teachers  should  be  in  the  hands  of  pro- 
fessional teachers  instead  of  lavmen,  and  that  a  county  superintendent, 
or  other  certificating  authority,  should  be  possessed  of  at  least  the 
highest  grade  of  certificate  which  is  issued  by  him.  This  is  all  very 
good  as  far  as  it  goes,  but  is  is  entirely  inadequate  to  meet  the  needs 
of  present-day  education.  Such  a  system  brings  to  the  front  only  the 
old  and  successful  practitioner,  while  what  we  need  is  the  man  Avho,  in 


— 6  E  C 


82 

addition  to  successful  practice,  has  secured  a  broad  education  and  made 
a  careful  study  of  school  administration  and  educational  theor}'^  as 
well.  There  is  no  particular  fault  to  be  found  with  the  present  body 
of  county  superintendents  as  such.  They  are  good  enough  in  their  way, 
and  are  the  best  the  present  system  can  produce.  The  trouble,  however, 
is  with  the  system.  It  produces  the  successful  practitioner  who  has 
learned  largely  by  experience  and  imitation,  and  not  the  educational 
leader  who  works,  partly  in  the  light  of  his  past  experience,  but  largely 
in  the  light  of  the  best  educational  theory  there  is  on  the  subject.  Too 
often  our  superintendents  work  without  any  guiding  theory  of  conse- 
quence, with  the  result  that  their  educational  work  is  traditional  work 
and  highly  conservative,  and  their  main  services  clerical  rather  than 
supervisory,  in  any  broad  educational  sense  of  the  term.  Such  work 
and  conditions  will  not  meet  the  needs  of  the  future  in  a  nation  where 
the  changes  in  the  conditions  of  living,  and  the  consequent  modifications 
of  an  educational  system  to  meet  changed  conditions,  are  taking  place 
as  rapidly  as  they  are  with  us  at  present.  Everywhere  our  rural  schools 
are  calling  for  leadership  and  close  educational  supervision  of  a  new 
order;  but  little  can  be  done  to  answer  this  call  until  some  important 
changes  are  made  in  our  methods  of  selecting  supervisory  officers,  and 
the  number  of  these  is  largely  increased.  In  the  judgment  of  the 
writer,  two  fundamental  changes  ought  to  be  made  in  our  method  of 
selecting  men  for  supervisory  positions.  Both  are  of  fundamental 
importance.  The  first  is  the  erection  of  a  distinctly  higher  educational 
and  professional  standard  for  supervisors;  and  the  second  is  the  elim- 
ination of  the  county  superintendency  from  politics,  making  it  an  ap- 
pointive office,  with  the  selection  made  whollv  on  the  basis  of  educational 
ability.''* 

In  the  brief  description  of  the  development  of  the  county  superin- 
tendency in  Illinois  it  was  seen  that  originally  the  duties  of  the  office 
were  merely  those  involved  in  the  advertisement  and  sale  of  public  lands 
and  the  loaning  of  money.  Educational  duties  were  assigned  later  and 
somewhat  gradually.  It  is  not  surprising,  then,  that  at  the  beginning 
no  educational  requirements  for  school  commissioner  were  required. 
The  duties  of  the  office  were  such  as  any  man  with  ordinary  executive 
ability  could  perfonn.  Hence,  the  law  merely  specified  that  the 
commissioner  of  schools  should  be  "some  good,  competent  and  respon- 
sible person  of  the  county."  When  the  office  became  an  elective  one 
this  specification  was  dropped,  and  from  that' time  on  no  scholastic  quali- 
fications for  the  county  superintendencv  have  been  prescribed  in  that 
state  bv  law.  That  this  was  in  some  measure  due  to  the  gradual  assump- 
tion of  school  duties  by  that  officer  or  was  at  least  an  oversight  is  indi- 
cated by  the  fact  that  when  the  county  superintendent  was  authorized 
by  law  to  employ,  with  the  approval  of  the  county  board,  such  assistant 
or  assistants  as  he  needs  for  the  discharff-e  of  his  duties,  it  was  provided 
that  "such  assistants  shall  be  persons  of  good  attainments,  versed  in 
the  principles  and  methods  of  teaching,  familiar  with  the  public  school 

♦Fifth  vear  book,  National  Society  for  tlie  Scientific  Studv  of  Education,  part  2, 
pp.   67-8. 


83 

work,  and  coinpetcut  to^  visit  schools."  We  thus  have  the  somewhat 
peculiar  condition  in  that  state  of  requiring  certain  qualifications  on 
the  part  of  the  county  superintendent's  assistants,  while  no  require- 
ments are  demanded  of  him. 

Now,  the  office  of  county  superintendent  is  a  distinctly  professional 
one.  Since  the  commissioner  of  schools  was  made  ex  officio  superin- 
tendent of  common  schools  in  his  county  his  duties  have  been  to  a 
large  extent  educational,  and  consequently  the  office,  if  not  the  law, 
demanded  educational  qualifications.  Today  the  duties  of  the  office 
are  chiefly  educational.  The  superintendent  is  expected  to  be  first  of 
all  a  leader  of  the  educational  work  of  his  county.  He  is  a  teacher  of 
teachers.  He  should,  therefore,  possess  at  least  the  academic  qualifica- 
tions of  the  more  advanced  teachers  of  his  county.  Such  qualifications 
are  needed  not  merely  to  beget  confidence  and  to  give  him  standing 
among  those  with  whom  he  works,  although  this  is  important,  but  also 
because  without  them,  other  qualifications  being  the  same,  he  is  greatly 
handicapped  in  his  work  as  a  superintendent. 

Being  a  superintendent  of  the  work  of  teachers,  the  county  superin- 
tendent should  know  good  teaching  when  he  sees  it.  He  will  be  all 
the  better  judge  of  teaching  after  he  has  had  experience  as  a  teacher.. 
There  should,  therefore,  be  required  of  the  county  superintendent  of 
schools  definite  scholastic  qualifications  and  also  experience  in  teaching. 

Finally,  the  county  superintendent  is  a  superintendent  of  schools. 
He  is  at  the  head  of  the  school  system  of  his  county  and  is  the  mediat- 
ing agent  between  the  schools  and  the  school  officers  of  his  county  and 
the  educational  authorities  of  the  State.  He  should  therefore  be 
familiar  with  the  school  system  of  the  State  and  with  the  general 
principles  of  school  organization  and  administration.  As  he  usually  has 
appellate  jurisdiction  in  matters  of  dispute  concerning  educational  af- 
fairs in  his  county,  he  should  be  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  school  law 
of  the  State.  In  a  word,  he  should  have  the  special  qualifications  natur- 
ally to  be  expected  of  a  professional  supervisor  of  schools. 

In  view  of  the  peculiar  duties  attaching  to  the  county  superintcnd- 
ency  he  should  be  reauired  to  hold  a  sunervisory  certificate,  the  lowest 
form  of  which  should  demand  the  academic  preparation  necessary  to 
obtain  a  first  grade  countv  certificate  and  in  addition  a  knowledge  of 
the  school  system  and  school  law  of  the  State  and  of  school  organiza' 
tion  and  administration. 

This  should  be  required  not  because  prescribed  qualifications  are  ab- 
solutely necessary  to  secure  competent  school  superintendents.  The  ex- 
perience of  many  states  shows  the  contrary.  A  comparatively  high 
standard  of  qualifications  is  in  most  states  enforced  by  public  opinion. 
But  the  time  has  come  when  this  standard  should  be  generally  recog- 
nized and  expressed  in  the  laws  of  the  states. 

In  some  of  the  states  in  which  the  county  superintendent  is  elected 
by  the  people  it  is  supposed  by  some  that  scholastic  qualifications  could 
not  legally  be  prescribed  for  the  office  of  county  superintendent.  This 
is  probably  an  erroneous  supposition.  Iowa,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Michi- 
gan, Wisconsin  and  other  states  elect  their  county  superintendents,  but 


84 

at  the  same  time  they  provide  the  requirement  of  certain  scholastic 
qualifications.  The  inference  would  be  that  other  states  might  do  the 
same.  In  Illinois,  for  instance,  the  matter  is  not  left  to  inference.  The 
constitution  of  that  State  oxpressl}^  provides  that  the  qualifications  of 
the  county  superintendent  "shall  be  prescribed  by  law.'^*  Fixing  the 
qualifications  of  the  county  superintendents,  therefore,  is  not  merely 
something  which  the  General  Assembly  may  do,  it  is  something  which  it 
is  specifically  enjoined  to  do.  Up  to  the  present  time,  however,  no 
standard  of  qualification  has  been  prescribed.  ''The  right  of  the  people 
to  elect  their  county  superintendent  of  schools,"  said  Batenifi^,  "should 
not  be  abridged,  but  it  seems  entirely  practicable  for  the  Legislature 
to  require  the  candidate  to  possess  certain  necessary  qualifications  for 
the  duties  of  the  office,  and  I  respectfully  recommend  that  it  bo  done."f 
In  another  place  he  declared  that  "it  .is  a  solecism  in  our  school  system 
that  while  no  teacher  can  be  employed,  or  paid,  in  any  school  in  the 
State,  under  any  circumstances  whatever,  without  due  examination  and 
licensure;  no  conditions  or  qualifications  of  any  kind  or  degree  are  re- 
quired of  the  man  who  conducts  the  examination,  and  issues,  or  refuses 
to  issue,  the  license.  He  may  be  the  first  gentleman  and  scholar  in  his 
county,  pre-eminently  worthy  in  character  and  attainments :  or  deplor- 
ably lacking  in  intelligence,  scholarship,  morality  and  refinement — 
it  is  all  the  same  in  the  eye  of  the  law,  under  the  present  arrangement. 
It  is  submitted  that  this  is  neither  reasonable  nor  safe — the  wise  pur- 
pose of  the  law  in  requiring  proof  of  the  fitness  and  competency  of 
teachers,  is  obviously  liable  to  be  negatived  arid  nullified  in  any  county 
at  any  time.  Some  evidence  of  competency  and  fitness,  some  tangible 
proof  of  reasonable  qualifications  for  the  office,  and  of  capacity  to  dis- 
charge its  duties,  should  be  made  a  condition  of  eligibility  to  the  office 
of  county  superintendent  of  schools.^J 

REFERENCES. 

1885. 

Stevenson.  R.  "W. — City  and  town  supervision  of  schools.  National  educational 
association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1884.  Boston,  1885  ;  p. 
283-292. 

1886.    ■ 

Holcombe,  John  W. — The  county  superintendency.  National  educational  associa- 
tion.    Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1885.     New  York.  1886;  p.  162-170.' 

McElroy,  B.  B. — County  suerintendents.  National  educational  association.  Journal 
of  proceedings  and  addresses.   1886.      Salem,   18S7  :   p.    3.37-345. 

United  States — Bureau  of  education.  Duties  of  county  superintendents.  By  D.  L. 
Kiehle.     Circular  of  information  No.   2,   1886;   p.   89-93. 

1887. 

Higbee,  E.  E. — City  arid  county  supervision.  National  educational  association. 
Proceedings,   1887  ;  p.   102-5. 

1888. 

Hancock,  John — School  supervision  in  the  United  States  and  other  countries  com- 
pared. National  educational  association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  ad- 
dresses,  1887.     Salem,   Mass.,  1888;   p.   512-520. 


♦Article  VIII,  section  5. 

tlUinois  School  Report,    1869-70,  p.   128. 

llllinois  School  Report,  1871-72,  p.  146. 


85 

1890. 

Pickard,  Josiah  Little — School  supervision.  New  York,  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  1890  ; 
XIV,   175,  p.   12.     County  superintendency  discussed  on  p.   28-37. 

1894. 

'^'aller,  D.  J. — Supervision  of  country  schools.  National  educational  association. 
Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,    1894 ;   p.   368-72. 

1895. 

Sabin,  Henry — Report  of  the  committee  on  State  school  systems — Ungraded  schools. 
National  educational  association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1895, 
Denver;  p.   459-475. 

1896. 

Pellow,  Henry  C. — A  study  in  school  supervision  and  maintenance.  Topeka,  Kan- 
sas, Crane  &  Co.,  1896  ;  173  p.  Tables  8°.  County  supervision  discussed  on 
pages   44-48. 

1897. 

Evans,  Lawton  B..  Chairman — Report  of  the  .sub-committee  on  supervision.  In 
report  of  committee  of  twelve  on  rural  schools.  National  educational  associa- 
tion.    Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,   1897  ;  p.   437-456. 

1898. 

Dougherty,  N.  C. — School  supervision.  (Abstract  of  discussion  of  report  on  rural 
schools.)  National  educational  association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  ad- 
dresses,  1898:  p.   576-577. 

Mclver,  Charles  D. — Better  supervision  of  the  public  schools  in  the  South.  Na- 
tional educational  association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1898 ; 
p.  325-328. 

1899. 

AUerton,  Walter  S. — School  supervision  in  New  York  State.  Educational  review, 
17;   287-291;  March,  1899. 

1904. 

Draper,  Andrew  S. — The  supervision  of  country  schools.  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  C.  W. 
Bardeen,  1904  ;   43  p.  12°. 

The   supervision   of  the   country  schools.      An   address   at   the    50th   annual 

meeting  at  New  York  State  school  commissioners  and  superintendents  at  Syra- 
cuse, N.  Y.,  November  21,  1904.  Albany,  N.  Y.,  1904  ;  p.  22-35.  [New  York 
(State)  educational  department.  Addresses  by  the  commissioner  of  educa- 
tion.] 

Lefevre.  Arthur — Increasing  the  efficiency  of  rural  schools.  National  educational 
association.      Journal  of  proceedings  and   addresses,    1904;   p.   309-313. 

1905. 

Coulter,  Minnie — Report  on  supervision  of  rural  schools.  California  teachers'  asso- 
ciation. Proceedings  and  year  book.  Berkeley,  California,  December  26-29, 
1905.     In  the  Western  Journal  of  education,   11  ;   171-179. 

Cubberley.  Ellwood  P. — Report  on  supervision  of  rural  schools.  California  teachers' 
association.  Proceedings  and  vear  book.  Berkeley,  California.  December  26- 
29,  1905.     In  The  Western  Journal  of  education,  11  ;   181-188,  March,   1906. 

1906. 

A  plan  for  rural  supervision.     American  education,   10;   275-8,  December,   1906. 

Carris,  Lewis  H. — Supervision  of  rural  and  village  schools  ;  .some  suggested  changes 
in  the  pre.sent  law.  New  York  (State)  education  department.*  Bulletin  389. 
October.   1906  ;  p.   45-51. 

Cubberley.  KUwood  P. — The  P'ifth  Year  Book  of  the  national  society  for  the  scien- 
tific "study  of  education,  Part  II.  The  certilication  of  teachers.  Chap.  7,  Chi- 
cago, the  University  of  Chicago,  Press. 

Kern,  O.  J. — Among  country  .schools.     Boston,  Ginn  &  Co..   1906;   366  p.   12°. 

:Suzzallo,  Henry — The  rise  of  local  school  supervision  in  Massachusetts.  (The 
school  committee.  1635-1827.)  New  York.  Teachers'  College,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, New  York,  1906.  vii,  154  p.  [Teachers'  college,  Columbia  University. 
Contributions  to  education,  v.  1,  No.  3.] 


8G 

1907. 

Toland,  T.  L. — A  concrete  example  of  the  benefits  of  efficient  county  supervision 
of  the  public  schools.     Texas  school  magazine,  9  ;  5-7,  October,  1906. 

County  supervision.      Missouri  school  journal,    24;    11-12,   January,    1907. 

Draper,  Andrew  Sloan — Shall  we  have  school  supervision  in  the  rural  districts? 
Address  by  Andrew  S.  Draper,  at  the  state  association  of  school  commissioners 
and  superintendents,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  Wednesday  evening,  November  6,  1907. 
[Albany,  N.  Y.?]   1907;  22  p.  8°. 

Hartmann,  Carl  Gottfried — A  study  in  school  supervision  with  special  reference  to 
rural  school  conditions  in  Texas,  by  Carl  Hartmann,  under  the  direction  of 
W.  S.  Sutton,  Austin.  Texas.  [University  of  Texas]  1907  ;  180  p.  incl.  map, 
tables,  8°  [Bulletin  of  the  University  of  Texas,  No.  90.  General  series  No. 
16.] 

New  Hampshire.  Department  of  public  Instruction.  Eight  j'ears  of  district  super- 
vision.    [1907?]   7  p.  8°. 

No  county  supervision.     Western   teacher,    15  ;    247-8,   March,    1907. 

Piatt,  H.  S. — Rural  school  supervision.  Ohio  educational  monthly,  56  ;  54-60, 
February,   1907. 

States  and  territories  having  county  supervision.  Missouri  school  journal,  24 ; 
70-71,  February,   1907. 

Rural  supervision.  Journal  of  education.  New  England  and  national,  Boston,  65- 
99,  January  24,   1907. 

The  1907  fight  for  county  school  supervision.  INIissouri  school  Journal,  24 ;  146- 
152,   April,    1907. 


87 


COUNTY  BOARDS  OF  EDUCATION. 


The  Number  of  States  Having  County  Boards. 

Twenty-nine  of  the  states  of  this  country  have  some  form  of  county 
board  of  education.  In  one  form  or  another  the  county  board  is  found 
in  all  the  middle  states  but  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  and  in  all  the 
southern  state  but  Arkansas.  Four  of  the  fourteen  central  states, 
namely,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Nebraska  and  North  Dakota  have  no  pro- 
vision for  a  county  board  of  education.  The  same  is  true  of  four  of 
the  Pacific  states,  namely,  Washington,  Idaho,  Colorado  and  Wyoming, 
and  two  territories,  Arizona  and  New  Mexico.  There  are  no  county 
boards  of  education  in  the  New  England  states.  A  few  states  have  a 
provision  for  more  than  one  kind  of  county  board.  Virginia,  for  in- 
stance, has  a  county  trustee  electoral  board  and  Oregon  has  a  county 
high  school  board  consisting  of  the  county  judge  and  the  two  county 
commissioners,  the  county  treasurer  and  the  county  school  superin- 
tendent. 

Membership  and  T'erm  of  Office. 

The  number  of  members  of  the  county  boards  in  the  different  states 
,  varies  considerably.  In  eight  states  the  number  is  determined  by  the 
number  of  districts  or  townships  from  which  the  members  of  the  county 
board  are  appointed  or  elected.  In  the  twenty-one  states  in  which 
the  number  of  meml^ers  is  fixed  it  is  either  three  or  five.  In  sixteen 
states  it  is  three  and  in  five  states  it  is  five.  The  term  of  office  varies 
from  two  to  four  years. 

Composition. 

There  is  also  great  diversity  in  the  method  of  constituting  county 
boards  of  education.  There  are  at  least  a  dozen  digerent  ways  by 
which  the  members  are  selected.  In  seventeen  of  the  states  the  county 
superintendent  is  a  member  by  virtue  of  his  office.  The  remaining 
members  are,  as  a  rule,  appointed.  In  onlv  three  states,  Florida,  Nevada 
and  Utah,  are  they  directlv  elected  by  the  people.  In  Delaware  and 
Maryland  they  are  appointed  by  the  governor.  In  Kentucky,  Missis- 
sippi, New  Jersey,  Oklahoma,  Oregon  and  Texas  the  members  addi- 
tional to  the  county  superintendent  are  appointed  bv  him.  In  North 
Carolina  the  General  Assembly  appoints,  in  Missouri  and  South  Caro- 


88 

lina  the  state  board  of  education,  in  Georgia  the  grand  jury,,  in  Ohio 
the  probate  judge,  and  in  Tennessee  the  county  court.  In  Indiana  the 
county  suijerinteudent,  the  trustees  of  the  townships  and  the  chairmen 
of  the  school  trustees  of  each  town  and  city  of  the  county  constitute 
the  county  board.  Sometimes  the  board  is  composed  of  the  supervisors 
or  commissioners  of  the  county  or  these  officers  have  the  power  to  ap- 
point some  of  the  members.  Examples  of  this  method  of  constitut- 
ing the  board  are  found  in  California,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Michigan  and 
Montana.  In  Minnesota,  in  unorganized  territory,  schools  are  under 
the  control  of  a  county  board,  of  education  which  is  composed  of  the 
chairman  of  the  board  of  county  commissioners,  the  county  superin- 
tendent and  the  county  treasurer.  There  is  a  movement  in  that  state, 
however,  to  bring  about  a  radical  change.  The  last  legislative  com- 
mittee of  the  Minnesota  Educational  Association  recommended  the 
creation  of  a  non-nartisan  county  board  of  education  to  be  elected  at 
the  annual  school  meeting,  one  member  from  each  commissioner's  dis- 
trict; the  term  of  office  to  be  four  years.  Such  board  is  to  meet  quar- 
terly and  its  members  are  to  be  paid  their  traveling  expenses  and  a  per 
diem  compensation. 

Qualifications  of  Members. 

Special  qualifications  are  reciuired  of  members  of  county  boards  only 
in  states  in  which  such  boards  have  power  to  certificate  teachers  and 
not  in  all  of  these.  Of  the  thirteen  states  authorizing  county  boards 
to  issue  certificates  ten  require  some  definite  educational  qualifications 
on  the  part  of  the  members.  In  only  three  are  no  qualifications  re- 
quired. In  seven  of  these  states  the  members  of  the  county  board  are 
required  to  hold  at  least  a  first  grade  county  certificate.  In  California 
three  of  the  five  members  must  hold  certificates  not  lower  than  a  gram- 
mar school  certificate,  which  must  be  in  full  force  and  effect,  and  if 
there  be  a  high  school  in  the  county  one  member  is  required  to  hold  a 
high  school  certificate.  In  Montana  members  must  have  been  engaged 
in  teaching  for  eighteen  months  prior  to  their  election.  In  Ohio  two 
years'  experience  is  required  and  members  of  the  board  must  have  been 
actively  engaged  in  teaching  within  five  years. 

Powers  axd  Duties. 

In  ten  of  the  states  the  duties  of  countv  boards  of  education  are  prac- 
tically limited  to  holding  examinations  and  granting  certificates.  Three 
other  states  include  the  certificating  function  among  others.  In  two  of 
the  states  county  boards  have  nothing  to  do  but  to  select  and  adopt  text 
books  for  use  in  the  public  schools  of  the  county.  In  Iowa  the  powers 
of  the  board  are  limited  to  duties  connected  with  text  books.  In  six 
of  the  states  power  is  given  to  the  county  boards  of  education  to  elect 
the  county  superintendent,  the  district  superintendent,  or  the  county 


81) 

commissioner  of  schools.  The  powers  and  duties  of  the  county  boards 
of  education  in  all  the  states  are  set  forth  in  detail  in  the  following 
table : 

Table  I. 

Showing  the  Number  of  Members,  T&rni  of  Office,  the  Composition, 
and  Powers  and  Duties  of  the  Countv  Boards  of  Education  in  the 
United  States. 


state. 


No. 


Term. 


Composition. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


Alabama . 


California. 


Delaware. 


Florida. 


Georgia. 


County  superintendent 
and  4  county  trustees 
elected  by  the  chair- 
men of  the  boards  of 
district  trustees 


County  superintendent 
and  4  other  members 
appointed  by  board  of 
supervisors 


Appointed  by  governor.. 


One  member  from  each 
school  district  elected 
by  tlie  people 


Appointed  by  grand  jury 
except  in  counties  un- 
der local  system 


To  adopt  rules  and  regula- 
tions for  government  of 
schools.  2.  To  acquire,  pur- 
chase, lease,  receive,  hold, 
transmit  and  convey  title  to 
real  and  personal  property 
for  school  purposes.  3.  To 
change  district  boundaries.  4. 
To  organize  and  maintain 
teachers'  institutes.  5.  To  ap- 
Iiortion  school  fund  amotig 
districts  of  county.  6.  To 
fill  vacancies  in  district  board 
of  trustees   


1.  To  prescribe  and  enforce  rules 
for  examination  of  teachers. 
2.  To  grant  and  revoke  certi- 
ficates." 3.  To  adopt  a  list  of 
books  and  apparatus  for  dis- 
trict school  libraries,  and  ex- 
cept in  cities  having  a  City 
Board  of  Education,  to  pre- 
scribe and  enforce  in  the  pub- 
lic schools  a  course  of  study 
and  the  use  of  a  uniform  ser- 
ies of  text  books 

1.  To  have  general  supervision 
of  school  system  in  county.  2. 
To  report  quarterly  to  State 
Board  of  Kducation.  3.  To 
hear  complaints  regarding 
schools  and  school  officers.  4. 
To  condemn  school  buildings 
as  unsafe   or  imhealthy 


1.  To  examine  books  and  records 
of  tax  collector.  2.  To  require 
prompt  settlement  of  all  poll 
taxes.  3.  To  appoint  grading 
committee  prior  to  each  ex- 
amination. 4.  To  contract 
debts  and  borrow  money 


1.  To  select  county  commis- 
sioner. 2.  To  divide  county  in 
.sub-districts  when  necessary 
for  white  and  colored  races. 
3.  To  employ  teachers.  4. 
To  purchase,  lease,  or  rent 
school  sites.  5.  To  build  or 
repair  school  houses.  6.  To 
decide  controversies  relating 
to   school    law 


90 


Table  1 — Continued, 


state. 


No. 


Term. 


Composition. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


Indiana. 


Iowa  , 


Kansas. 


Kentucky. 


Louisiana 


Var- 
ries. 


County  superintendent 
township  trustees  and 
chairman  of  school 
trustees  of  each  town 
and  city 


County  superintendent, 
county  auditor  and 
members  of  the  board 
of  supervisors 


County     superintendent 
and  2  persons  appoint 
ed  by  county  commis 
sioners 


County  superintendent 
and  2  persons  appoint 
ed  by  him 


One  member  from  each 
police  jury  ward, 
elected  by  people 


To  adopt  rules  and  regula- 
tions for  government  of 
schools  of  county.  2.  To  act 
with  board  of  county  commis- 
sioners in  electing  trustees  for 
donated  county  high  schools. 
3.  To  consider  general  wants 
of  county  schools  in  regard  to 
furniture,  books,  maps  and 
charts.  4.  To  determine 
changes  of  high  school  text 
books  (except  in  cities)  and 
to  manage  township  libraries. 
Note — The  township  trustees 
acting  separately  elect  the 
county    superintendent    


To  submit  to  voters  ques- 
tions of  imiformity  of  text 
books.  2.  To  adopt  and  con- 
tract for  text  books  for  use 
in  rural  schools.  3.  To  pur- 
chase text  books  for  sale  and 
appoint  depository  agents  to 
handle    the   same .- 


1.  To  conduct  examinations  and 
grant  certificates    

1.  To  hold  examinations  and 
grant  certificates.  2.  To  pur- 
chase, lease  or  rent  school 
sites,  to  build,  repair  or  rent 
school  houses  and  to  purchase 
necessary  apparatus.  3.  To 
fix  salaries  of  county  high 
school  teachers.  4.  To  select 
text  books  to  be  used  in  coun- 
ty   high    schools 


1.  To  elect  parish  superinten- 
dent. 2.  To  report  neglect  of 
duty  on  part  of  teachers  to 
State  Board  of  Education.  3. 
To  determine  number  of 
schools  to  be  opened,  location 
of  school  houses,  number  of 
teachers  to  be  employed  and 
their  salaries.  4.  To  make 
necessary  rules  and  regula- 
tions for  schools.  5.  To  receive 
lands  by  purchase  or  dona- 
tion for  purpose  of  erecting  'a. 
school   house    


91 


Table  1 — Continued. 


State. 


No.     Term. 


Composition. 


Maryland. 


Michigan 


Minnesota. 


Mississippi 


Missouri 


Montana. 


Nevada 


Appointed  by  Governor, 
t)  in  6  counties,  3  in 
others 


Powers  and  Duties. 


County  commissioner 
and  2  appointed  by 
board  of  supervisors  . . 


Chairman  board  of 
county  commissioners, 
county  superintendent 
and  county  treasurer 
compose  board  of  un 
organized  territory 


County  superintendent 
and  2  appointed  by 
him 


County  commissioner, 
one  member  appointed 
by  county  court  and 
one  appointed  by  State 
Board  of  Education 


County  superintendent 
and  two  persons  ap- 
pointed by  county 
commissioners 


District  attorney  and  two 
persons  elected  by 
people ■ 


To  have  general  supervision 
of  school.s  in  county.  2.  To 
build,  repair  and  furnish 
.school  house.s.  3.  To  appoint 
assistant  teacher.s  with  advice 
of  principal  of  .school  to  which 
teacher  i.s  to  be  appointed.  5. 
To  consolidate  .school.s.  6.  To 
report  annually  to  State 
Board  of  Education.  7.  To 
revoke  certificate.s.  8.  To  fix 
the  salaries  of  teachers.  9. 
To  appoint  county  school  su- 
perintendent     


To  hold  two  resular  examin- 
ations each  year  at  county 
seat.  2.  To  grant  and  revoke 
certificates    


To  make  levy  annually  on  all 
property  in  unorganized  terri- 
tory for  purpose  of  providing 
teachers,  etc.  2.  To  furnish 
school  facilities  to  all  children 
in   territory    


1.     To     hold    examinations     and 
grant  certificates    


To  hold  examinations  and 
grant  certificates.  2.  To  adopt 
course  of  study  for  use  of 
schools  of  county.  3.  To  se- 
cure uniformity  in  grading 
and    classifying    schools 


To  hold  examinations  and 
grade  papers.  2.  To  hold 
eighth  grade  examinations 
and  grant  diplomas  or  certifi- 
cates to  persons  passing  such 
examinations    


1.  To  estimate  amount  of  money 
needed  to  pay  necessary  ex- 
penses of  county  high  school. 

2.  To  adopt  necessary  text 
books  and  enforce  course  of 
study   for  county  high   schooj. 

3.  To  do  all  things  necessary 
to  proper  conduct  of  schools . . 


93 


Table  1 — Continued. 


State. 


No. 


Term. 


Composition. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


New  Jersey. 


North  Carolina. 


Ohio. 


Oklahoma  , 


Oregon , 


South  Carolina. 


Not 
fixed. 


South  Dakota. 


Tennessee. 


County  superintendent 
and  not  to  exceed  three 
teachers  appointed  by 
him 


Appointed    by    General 
Assembly 


Appointed     by    probate 
judge  

County      superintendent 
and  two    members  ap 
pointed  by  him 

County     superintendent 
and  two  members  ap 
pointed  by  him 


County  superintendent 
and  two  appointed  by 
State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion  


1.  To  hold  examination.s.     2.  To 
grant  and  revoke  certificates. 


,  To  enforce  school  law.  2. 
To  remove  any  teacher  for 
immoral  conduct  or  the  coun- 
ty superintendent  upon  com- 
plaint of  State  superintendent. 
3.  To  malte  regulations  gov- 
erning attendance  of  school 
children.  4.  To  create,  abol- 
ish, or  consolidate  districts. 
5.  To  have  general  supervision 
of  schools  in  county.  6.  To 
appoint  county  superintendent 


1.  To  hold  examinations.     2.  To 
grant  and  revoke  certificates. 


To  hold  examinations.      2.   To 
grant  and  revoke   certificates. 


1.   To  hold  examinations.      2.   To 
grant  and  revoke  certificates. 


To  hold  examinations.  2.  To 
grant   and   revoke    certificates. 

3.  To  supervise  county  scliools. 

4.  To  levj-  county  school  tax 
and  apportion  fund.  5.  To 
divide  county  into  convenient 
school  districts.  6.  To  fill  va- 
cancies in  board  of  trustees. 
7.  To  regulate  opening  and 
closing  of  school  terms.  8.  To 
set  aside  from  county  fund  a 
sufficient  amount  to  provide 
pupils  with  text  books  at  act- 
ual cost  or  exchange  prices. . 


County  superintendent, 
president  board  of  edu- 
cation of  all  cities  or 
towns,  county  auditor, 
board  of  county  com- 
missioners, their  suc- 
cessors m  oftice  and  one 
person  from  each  com- 
missioner's district 


Elected  by  county  court, 


To  select  and  adopt  text 
book.s  for  use  in  public  schools 
of  county    

To  select  teachers,  fix  their 
salaries,  erect  buildings,  re- 
pair and  furnish  school 
houses.  2.  To  secure  as  nearly 
as  practicable  uniformity  of 
school  term.  3.  To  locate 
schools  where  deemed  most 
convenient.  4.  To  dismiss 
teachers  for  incompetency  or 
immoral  conduct 


1)3 


Table  i— Concluded. 


State. 


No.     Term. 


Composition. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


Texas. 


Utaii 


Virginia 


West  Virginia. 


I  Fixed  Appointed  by  county  su- 

I     by         perintendent 

county 
supt.   I 


4     One  elected  from  each  of 

I    five  representative  pre- 

1    cints,  (a  scliool  district 

board)  


Division  superintendent 
of  schools  and  school 
trustees  in  each  county 


To  hold  examinations  and 
grade  applicants'  papers.  2. 
To  report  to  county  superin- 
tendent number  of  credits  al- 
lo\ved  on  each  subject 


To  take  school  census.  2. 
To  purchase  and  sell  school 
house  sites.  3.  To  establish 
and  support  school  libraries. 
4.  To  elect  district  superin- 
tendent of  schools.  5.  To 
purchase  or  exchange  high 
school  apparatus.  6.  To  adopt 
by-laws  and  rules  for  the 
procedure  of  the  board  of 
education,  and  make  all  need- 
ful rules  for  the  management 
of  the  schools 


1.  To  file  annually  with  the  di- 
vision superintendent  4n  esti- 
mate of  amount  of  money 
needed  during  next  scholastic 
year.  2.  To  apportion  county 
school  fund.  Virginia  has 
also  a  school  trustees  electoral 
board    

4  , County  superintendent 
and  eight  members  ap- 
pointed by  County 
Court 11.  To  adopt  text  books 


TYricAL  County  Boards. 

An  examination  of  the  foregoing  table  will  show  that  there  are  three 
types  of  county  boards  of  education  representing  three  grades  of  au- 
thority exercised  over  the  public  schools. 

First,  there  is  the  board  which  is  nothing  more  tiuin  a  legally  con- 
stituted committee  on  text  books.  Such,  for  instance,  are  the  boards  of 
West  Virginia,  South  Dakota  and  Iowa.  The  sole  function  of  the 
West  Virginia  and  South  Dakota  boards  is  to  select  and  adopt  all  the 
text  books  needed  in  the  pul)lic  schools  of  the  county.  The  West  Vir- 
ginia board,  we  may  say  in  passing,  is  somewhat  peculiarly  constituted. 
It  is  composed  of  the  county  superintendent  who  is  secretary  ex  officio 
oi  the  board  and  "eight  other  reputable  citizens  and  tax  payers  of  tlie 
county."  Four  of  the  eight  must  be  free  holders  and  not  school 
teachers.  Three  members  must  be  persons  actively  engaged  in  teach- 
ing in  tlie  schools  of  the  county  and  must  hold  a  teacher's  first  grade 
certificate  or  its  equivalent.  Not  more  than  five  of  the  eight  may  belong 
to  the  same  political  party.  In  Iowa  text  books  are  usually  selected 
and  adopted  by  the  boards  of  directors  of  school  corporations.  But  on 
petition  of  one-third  of  the  school  directors  in  a  county,  other  than  those 


94 

in  cities  and  towns,  the  county  board  of  education  consisting  of  the 
county  superintendent,  county  auditor  and  the  members  of  the  board 
of  supervisors,  may  submit  to  the  voters  of  the  county  the  question  of 
county  uniformity  of  text  books.  If  the  question  is  carried  the  county 
board  selects  the  text  books  for  the  entire  county,  under  such  rules  and 
regulations  as  it  may  see  fit  to  adopt. 

The  second  type  of  county  board  is  that  represented  by  what  is 
usually  known  as  a  county  board  of  examiners.  Its  function  is  limited 
to  the  examination  of  teachers  and  the  granting  and  revoking  of  cer- 
tificates. This  kind  of  board  is  found  in  the  following  states :  Kansas, 
Michigan,  Mississippi,  Montana,  New  Jersey,  Ohio,  Oklahoma,  Ore- 
gon and  Texas.  The  county  boards  of  California,  Kentucky  and  Mis- 
souri have  slightly  additional  functions.  California  authorizes  the 
county  board  to  adopt  text  books  for  district  school  libraries  and  to 
prescribe,  and  enforce  in  the  rural  schools  a  course  of  study  and  the 
use  of  a  uniform  series  of  text  books.  In  Kentucky  the  boaid  has 
control  of  the  county  high  school  and  may  also  purchase,  lease,  or  rent 
school  sites  and  to  build,  repair,  or  rent  school  houses  and  purchase 
necessary  apparatus.  Missouri  authorizes  the  county  boards  of  the 
State,  in  addition  to  the  power  to  hold  examinations  and  grant  cer- 
tificates, to  adopt  a  course  of  study  for  use  in  the  public  schools  of  the 
county  and  to  secure  uniformity  in  grading  and  classifying  schools. 
Kansas  offers  a  good  example  of  this  second  type  of  county  board. 
The  law  of  that  state  provides  that  "in  each  county  there  shall  be  a 
board  of  county  examiners,  composed  of  the  county  superintendent, 
who  shall  be  ex  officio  chairman  of  the  board,  and  two  competent  per- 
sons, holders  of  professional  certificates  or  first  grade  certificates,  or 
of  state  certificates,  or  of  diplomas  from  the  State  University,  the  State 
jSTormal  School,  or  the  State  Agricultural  College,  who  shall  be  ap- 
pointed by  the  county  commissioners  on  the  nomination  of  the  county 
superintendent,  and  shall  serve  one  year  from  the  time  of  their  re- 
spective appointments,  and  each  of  whom  shall  receive  for  their  services 
the  sum  of  three  dollars  per  day  for  not  to  exceed  twenty-four  days 
in  any  one  year."*  The  board  so  constituted  is  required  to  hold  three 
examinations  a  year  at  such  places  as  may  be  designated  by  the  county 
superintendent  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  qualifications  of  all 
persons  proposing  to  teach  in  the  common  schools  of  the  coimty,  ex- 
cept in  cities  of  the  first  and  second  class.  Eeference  has  already  been 
made  to  the  almost  general  requirement  of  educational  qualifications 
for  members  of  county  boards  of  the  second  type. 

Finally,  there  is  a  third  type  of  county  board.  It  is  found  in  about 
a  dozen  states  of  the  Union,  This  type  is  characterized  by  the  posses- 
sion of  practically  complete  control  over  the  public  schools  of  the 
county.  The  school  law  of  Delaware,  for  instance,  provides  that  "The 
pupervision  of  all  the  free  public  schools,  including  those  for  colored 
cliildren,  in  each  of  the  counties  of  this  State  *  *  *  *  g|-^^]]  ij,, 
vested  in  the  county  school  commission  for  each  county.  The  said  com- 
mission shall  be  composed  of  three  persons,  no  more  than  two  of  whom 

♦Laws  relating  to  the  common  schools  of  Kansas,  chapter  2,  section  61,  pp.  33-34. 


95 

shall  be  ol  the  same  political  party.  Tliey  shall  be  appointed  by  the 
governor.''  Similar  provisions  may  be  found  in  the  law  of  about  half 
of  the  southern  states.  The  best  example  in  the  northern  states  of  the 
third  type  of  county  board  may  be  found  in  Indiana.  The  county  boards 
of  Indiana  are  composed  of  the  county  superintendent,  the  trustees  of 
the  townships,  and  the  chairmen  of  the  school  trustees  of  the  towns  and 
cities  of  the  county.  The  board  looks  after  the  general  wants  and  needs 
of  the  schools  and  school  property  of  which  it  has  charge  and  all  mat- 
ters relating  to  the  purchase  of  school  furniture,  books,  maps,  charts, 
etc.  The  scope  of  its  authority  is  indicated  bv  the  fact  that  it  may  for- 
mulate and  adopt  rules  and  regulations  for  the  government  of  tlie 
schools  of  the  county.  Perhaps,  however,  the  best  examples  of  this 
type  of  board  are  those  of  the  state  of  Maryland.  Under  the  general 
title  of  supervision  the  school  law  of  Maryland  provides  that  educa- 
tional matters  affecting  the  state,  and  the  general  care  and  supervision 
of  public  education  shall  be  entrusted  to  a  state  board  of  education; 
that  educational  matters  affecting  a  county  shall  be  under  the  control  of 
a  board  of  county  school  commissioners;  and  that  educational  matters 
affecting  a  school  district  shall  be  under  the  supervision  of  a  board  of 
district  school  trustees.*  There  is  thus  a  definite  suggestion  of  a  com- 
plete educational  system.  The  county  hoard  has  the  general  super- 
vision and  control  of  all  the  schools  in  the  county.  It  has  power  to 
build,  repair,  and  furnish  school  houses;  to  purchase  and  distribute  text 
books;  to  appoint  all  assistant  teachers,  after  advising  with  the  prin- 
cipal of  the  school  to  which  the  teacher  is  to  be  appointed;  it  fixes 
the  salary  of  all  teachers;  it  has  authority  to  consolidate  schools  where, 
in  its  judgment,  consolidation  is  practicable  and  desirable,  and  to  ar- 
range for  any  scool  to  pay  the  charges  of  transporting  pupils  to  and 
from  it,  and  to  perform  such  other  duties  as  may  be  necessary  to  secure 
an  efficient  administration  of  the  public  school  system.  Such  a  county 
board  is  obviously  quite  a  different  body  from  those  described  as  be- 
longing to  the  first  type. 

The  Advantages  of  a  County  Board. 

The  general  purpose  to  be  served  by  a  county  board  of  education  is  to 
assist  the  county  superintendent  in  carr}'ing  out  his  educational  policies 
and  in  the  performance  of  the  work  necessary  to  operate  the  general 
educational  system  of  the  State.  The  county  board  bears  about  the  same 
relation  to  the  county  superintendent  as  does  the  State  board  to  the 
State  Superintendent.  County  boards,  it  would  seem,  are  needed  to 
complete  the  educational  administrative  system  of  the  State.  They 
would  extend  that  system  from  the  general  supervising  agencies  at  the 
capitol  of  the  State  and  at  the  county  seat  to  the  remotest  rural  districts. 
They  would  serve  as  an  avenue  of  communication  between  the  various 
educational  authorities  of  the  State  and  the  people  of  each  township. 

But  it  is  not  for  the  sake  of  systematic  State  organization  alone  that 
county  boardes  of  education  should  be  constituted.  They  mav  be  made 
the  direct  means  of  increasing    the    general    efficiency  of    the    schools 


•Public  school   law  of  Maryland,   chapter   1,   sections   2,   3   and  4,   p.    6. 


96 

and  the  school  system  of  the  county.  The  comity  superintendent  has 
general  supers-ision  of  the  schools  of  the  county  as  the  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction  has  general  supervision  of  the  schools  of  the 
State.  For  practically  the  same  reasons  which  make  it  advisable  to 
have  a  State  Board  of  Education  to  assist  the  State  officer  in  the 
performance  of  his  duties  it  is  also  advisable  to  have  a  similar  body 
to  assist  the  county  superintendent  in  directing  and  improving  the 
■work  of  the  county  schools.  The  county  superintendent  is  required 
"^'to  labor  in  every  practicable  way  to  elevate  the  standard  of  teaching 
and  improve  the  condition  of  the  common  schools  of  his  county."  Now, 
it  would  be  of  the  greatest  assistance  to  him  when  he  has  devised  plans 
looking  to  this  end  to  be  able  to  call  together  the  county  board,  explain 
to  its  members  his  idea.s  and  policies  and  secure  their  cooperation  in 
carrying  his  plans  into  effect.  It  would  be  necessary,  of  course,  for  him 
to  convince  the  members  of  the  board  that  his  plans  are  wise  and  ex- 
pedient, but  if  he  is  unable  to  persuade  them  that  what  he  proposes  to 
do  is  calculated  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the  schools,  it  will  be  evidence 
that  his  plans  are  untimely  or  at  least  that  they  need  modification.  If 
on  the  other  hand,  he  is  able  to  develop  in  the  county  board  an  active 
interest  in  school  administration  and  school  teaching  he  will  have  at 
his  command  a  strong  force  to  bring  into  operation  in  the  development 
of  public  sentiment  favorable  to  advanced  ideas  in  regard  to  the  con- 
duct of  schools.  It  will  be  Avell  for  him  and  for  them  to,  meet  at 
intervals  to  discuss  educational  needs,  problems  and  expedients  and 
the  benefits  derived  by  them  from  exchange  of  ideas  and  opinions 
would  be  reflected  in  the  welfare  of  the  schools. 

It  is  not  alone,  then,  as  an  avenue  of  communication  and  a  means 
of  developing  public  sentiment  in  favor  of  wise  educational  policies 
that  county  JDoards  are  desirable.  Their  members  would  be  the  direct 
agents  of  the  county  superintendents  in  promoting  the  efficiency  of 
the  schools.  Moreover,  there  are  certain  definite  powers  and  duties 
which  are  usually  assigned  to  them  by  law.  Among  these  are  the  power 
to  adopt  and  enforce  rules  and  regulations  for  the  management  of 
schools  not  inconsistent  with  the  regulations  prescribed  by  the  State 
Board  of  Education;  to  direct  what  branches  of  study  shall  be  taught 
and  what  text  books  and  apparatus  shall  be  used  in  the  several  schools; 
to  prescribe  a  uniform  series  of  text  books  and  to  enforce  their  use  in 
the  schools  over  which  they  exercise  control;  to  select  the  books  for 
district  libraries  and  in  general  to  cooperate  with  the  county  superin- 
tendent in  devising  and  carrying  out  plans  for  promoting  the  educa- 
tional work  of  his  countv. 


REFERENCES. 

Dexter,  E.  G. — Organization  and  administration.  The  county.  In  lii.s  A  liistory 
of  education  in  tlie  United  States.      1904.  -p.   197-99. 

Button,  S.  T.  and  Snedden.  David — Problems  growinsr  out  of  state  and  local  admin- 
istration of  education  ;  in  their  The  administration  of  public  education  in  the 
United  States.      1908.      p.   96-119. 

Elliott,  E.  C. — A  type  of  positive  educational  reform.  Educational  Review,  33 : 
344-.55.      (April,  1907.) 

Describes  the  workings  of  the  county  school  board  conventions  with  special 
reference  to  Wisconsin  and  shows  them  to  be  valuable  factors  in  public  rural 
education. 


97 

Cotton,   F.   A. — Education   in   Indiana.      190-1.      Chapter   2    is   on   county   supervision. 

p.   50-73. 
Button,    S.    T.   and   Snedden,    David — Local   units   of  educational    administration  ;    in 

their   Tlie   administration   of  public  education   in   the   United   States.      1908.      p. 

73-95. 
Evans,   L.  B. — The  county  unit  in  educational   organization.     Educational   Review, 

11  :369-73.      (April,   1896.) 

Address    delivered    before    National    Educational    Association.      Department    of 

Supt.     February  18.  1896. 
Glenn,  G.  R. — The  county  versus  the  district  as  the  unit  of  organization.     Southern 

Educational  Association.     Proceedings,  1907:143-50. 
Hartmann,    C.    G. — A   study   in    school    supervision   with    special    reference    to    rural 

school  conditions  in  Texas.      180  p.      (Bulletin  of  the  University  of  Texas,   No. 

90.) 

Author  is  superintendent  of  public  instruction  in  Travis  county,  Texas  and  the 

monograph  was  prepared  while  a   graduate   student  at  the  university.     It  Is  a 

study  of  the  origin,  manner  and  effectiveness  of  county  supervision  of  schools, 

not  only  in  Texas  but  throughout  the  country.     The  writer  is  a  strong  believer 

in  the  system. 
Illinois  Educational   Commission — Bulletin   No.    2.     A  tentative   plan   for  a   county 

board  of  education.     1908. 
Missouri — The    1907    fight   for   county   school   supervision.      Missouri   school    journal. 

24:146-52.      (April,   1907.) 
N.  E.  A.  Department  of  superintendence — Proceedings,   1908.     Round  table  of  state 

and   county   superintendents.      County   supervision,   p.   143-63. 
National  Educational  Association — Report  of  the  committee  of  12  on  rural  schools. 

228  p.     1897. 
Ohio    school    improvement    league.      Report    of    committee    on    rural    schools.      Ohio 

Teacher.   28  :3S9-91.      (April,  1908.) 
Olsen,  J.  W. — Rural  school  supervision  ;  in  N.  E.  A.  department  of  superintendence. 

Round  table  of  state  and  county  superintendents,  1907,  p.  126-29. 
Pickard,  J.  L. — County  superintendency ;  in  his  School  supervision.     1890.     p.  28-37. 
Powers.   J.   N. — The   county  superintendent  and  his  mission.      Southern  Educational 

Association.     Proceedings.     1905 :116-21. 
Prince,  J.   T. — District  and  county  administration  of  schools  ;   in  his  School  admin- 
istration.    1906.     p.  52-58. 


— 7  E  C 


98 


UNITS  OF  SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION. 


It  is  obvious  that  no  school  system  can  be  effective  or  even  continue 
its  existence  without  some  form  of  local  authority  and  administration. 
The  primary  element  of  an  educational  system  is  the  school  and  the 
maintenance  of  the  school  requires  the  immediate  attention  of  properly 
authorized  persons  to  its  immediate  needs.  The  school  site  must  be 
located,  the  school  house  be  built  and  furnished,  the  teacher  employed, 
rules  and  regulations  in  regard  to  the  government  and  management 
of  the  school  must  l^e  formulated,  expenses  met,  etc.,  and  these  duties 
are  best  performed  by  some  person  or  nersons  who  are  citizens  of  the 
community  and  acquainted  with  its  educational  needs.  Accordingly 
we  find  that  in  all  the  states  of  the  union  there  are  local  school  officers 
whose  duties  are  practically  the  same  whatever  the  title  of  such  of- 
ficers may  be.  In  Maine,  Massachusetts  and  Ehode  Island  they  are 
called  school  committeemen,  in  other  states  trustees,  and  in  still  others 
directors.  There  is  no  question,  indeed  there  is  no  possibility,  of  elim- 
inating the  local  school  or  the  local  school  official  from  our  educational 
system. 

The  school,  however,  is  a  social  agency.  The  school  officers  derive 
their  authority  from  the  j^eople  and  their  duties  are  prescribed  by  the 
people.  The  people,  therefore,  must  decide  for  themselvs  upon  the 
form  of  school  organization  they  shall  adopt  and  the  area  to  which 
the  authority  and  activities  of  their  school  officials  shall  be  confined. 
While  communities  are  isolated,  the  territorial  question  is  a  matter 
of  no  practical  importance.  It  settles  itself.  School  officials  extend 
their  jurisdiction  to  the  limits  of  the  community.  But  when  com- 
munities are  organized  into  a  state  and  the  school  work  of  the  state 
is  to  be  harmonized  and  SA'stematized  the  question  becomes  highly  im- 
portant. Should  the  area  of  local  organization  be  large  or  small? 
Should  it  be  coextensive  with  a  civil  or  political  unit?  If  so,  should 
tliat  unit  be  the  district  the  township  or  the  county?  This  is  a  question 
of  school  organization  and  administration.  At  the  same  time  it  is  a 
question  of  social  ccoiiomv  and  educational  efficiency.  It  is  the  ques- 
tion of  the  unit  of  school  organization. 

Like  most  other  social  questions  that  of  the  legal  organization  and 
the  authoritative  administration  of  the  school  system  has  not  in  many 
states  or  communities  been  the  subject  of  deliberate  social  considera- 
tion, and  in  still  fewer  localities  has  the  question  been  brought  to  a 


99 

rational  and  iinal  solution.  Such  svstt'nhs  of  school  or<;-anization  as  W3 
have  are  as  a  rule  the  more  or  le:*s  incidental  and  unconscious  out- 
growths of  historical  and  social  conditions.  These  conditions  have 
diU'crcd  in  dilfcrent  parts  of  the  country.  Hence  the  school  organiza- 
tion in  one  section  differs  from  the  school  organization  in  another  sec- 
tion. The  fact  that  we  have  the  town  system  in  the  Xew  England 
states  and  the  county  system  in  thlie  southern  states  is  almost  wholly 
an  accidental  feature  of  the  well  known  social  conditions  which  led  to 
the  estahlishment  of  the  town  as  tlie  ])olitical  unit  of  government  in 
New  p]ngland  and  of  the  county  as  the  ]io1itical  unit  in  the  south.  Our 
local  systems  of  scliool  organization  may  therefore  be  said  to  have 
come  into  existence  without  nuu-h  conscious  reference  to  tlic  future 
needs  of  the  states  adopting  them. 

These  systems  are  four  in  number.  Conseciuently  we  have  in  this 
country  at  present  four  units  of  school  organization.  They  are  the 
community,  the  Ji strict,  the  township  and  the  county. 

The  Co>[muxity  System. 

TJie  community  system  of  school  organization  is  exceptional.  It 
exists  only  in  Texas  and  in  Init  a  few  counties  of  that  state.  In  cer- 
tain counties  of  Texas  called  "community  counties"  the  ])eople  nuiy 
unite  in  the  organization  of  a  free  school  comunity  by  making  aj> 
plication  in-  writing  to  the  county  judge  asking  that  their  pro  rata 
share  of  the  availal^le  school  fund  of  the  county  be  set  apart  for  the 
benefit  of  their  community.  Their  ])etition  must  set  forth  whether  the 
ai)plication  is  made  in  behalf  of  a  white  or  a  colored  community,  nnist 
state  the  name,  age  and  sex  of  each  child  to  be  benefitted,  the  capacity 
of  the  school  house,  the  character  of  the  school  conveniences  if  any, 
and  certain  other  information.  The  county  judge  seems  to  have  little 
option  in  the  matter  of  granting  the  ]ietition.  If  the  request  is  made 
in  due  form  he  grants  it  and  ap])oints  three  trustees  of  the  school  to 
whom  are  assigned  the  duties  usually  jierformed  by  sucli  officers.  ,Any 
county  may  be  transferred  from  the  comnumity  to  tlie  district  system 
by  an  order  from  the  commissioner's  court.  The  coniniunity  systi'Ui 
is  obviously  adapted  only  to  a  tliinly  settled  regi<m.  It  is  losing  ground 
in  Texas,  and  in  all  probability  it  will  disappear  gradually  as  the  i)onu- 
lation  of  the  state  increases. 

The  District  System. 

The  district  svstem  was  originally  almost  universal  and  it  still  pre- 
vails in  nuiny  of  the  states.  In  one  form  or  another  it  is  found  in  all 
states  west  of  the  Alleghanies  except  Pennsylvania.  Ohio.  Indiana  and 
a  few  of  the  southern  states.  Indeed  it  is  not  entirely  elimjnated  in 
New  England.  In  Connecticut,  as  has  been  remarked,  seventy-eight 
of  its  one  hundred  and  sixtv-eiglit  towns  are  still  under  the  district 
system.  In  all  the  otlier  Xew  EuLdand  states,  however,  the  district 
system  is  abolished.     There  are  still  independent  or  special  distrii-ts.  "of 


100 

course,  but  the  principle  of  sub-division  of  towns  into  districts  is  abol- 
ished. In  Massachusetts  alone  may  it  be  said,  ''the  school  district  sys- 
tem with  its  blighting  influence  has  disappeared."*  The  struggle  to 
make  such  a  statement  possible  with  respect  to  ]\Iassachusetts  is  his- 
torical. That  struggle  illustrates  how  tenacious  the  district  system  is. 
In  1853  the  towns  of  Massachusetts  were  allowed  to  discontinue  it. 
In  1859  districts  were  abolished  by  law,  but  in  a  special  session  of  the 
General  Court  held  the  same  year  the  law  abolishing  the  districts  was 
repealed.  In  1869  districts  were  again  al)olished.  but  in  1870  a  law 
was  passed  permitting  towns  to  re-establish  the  district  system  by  a 
two-thirds  maority  of  the  voters,  which  was  virtually  a  repeal  of  the 
earlier  law.  The  system  Avas  finally  abolished  in  1882.  It  was  abol- 
ished in  ISTew  Hampshire  in  1885,  in  Vermont  in  1892,  and  in  Maine 
and  Ehode  Island  in  1893.  In  some  of  the  southern  states  in  which 
neither  the  town  nor  the  township  exists  counties  have  Ijeen  divided 
into  districts  and  the  district  system  with  all  its  evils  virtually  prevails. 

The  principle  of  the  district  system  is  practically ,  the  same  as  that 
of  the  community  system.  It  is  that  the  people  of  the  community  or 
neighborhood  shall  have  control  of  their  own  school  or  schools.  But 
the  system  implies  the  division  of  a  town  or  township  into  small  sub- 
divisions each  of  which  is  a  unit  of '  school  organization  and  adminis- 
tration. Consequently  the  district  system  is  said  to  prevail  wherever 
this  principle  of  subdivision  is  in  operation.  It  is  impossible,  of  course, 
to  find  any  state  or  any  locality  in  which  the  schools  are  absolutely 
under  the  control  of  small  autonomous  districts.  The  district  system 
does  not  imply  the  absence  of  every  form  of  district  subordination  to 
superior  school  authorities.  But  it  does  implv  from  the  amount  of 
authoritv  left  with  the  people  of  the  district  the  principle  of  local  con- 
trol. 

This  system  is  simple  and  democratic  and  it  is  the  natural  system  in 
a  country  of  small,  scattered  communities.  In  a  new  country  it  is 
almost  certain  to  be  the  earliest  form  of  school  government  adopted, 
at  least  one  of  the  earliest,  and  once  established  it  is  hard  to  uproot. 
It  is'  not  strange,  therefore,  to  find  the  system  so  widely  distributed 
in  this  country. 

As  to  the  form  of  school  organization  in  states  under  the  district 
system  there  is  practical]--  unanimity.  Three  directors  or  trustees  are 
elected  by  the  people  to  sers-e  for  a  term  of  three  vears  and  are  em- 
powered to  discharge  all  the  duties  necessary  to  the  maintenance  of  the 
schools.  These  duties  are  in  general  the  following:  To  build,  rent, 
furnish  and  repair  school  buildings,  to  purchase  school  furniture  and 
apparatus,  to  manage,  control  and  convey  district  school  property,  to 
employ  or  to  dismiss  teachers,  to  admit  or  to  expel  pupils,  to  prescribe 
and  enforce  rules  for  the  government'  of  the  schools,  to  say  what 
branches  of  study  shall  he  taught,  to  take  the  school  census,  and  to 
make  reports  at  stated  times  to  a  superior  school  authority.  In  some 
states  their  functions  are  even  wider,  and  in  others  they  are  not  so  ex- 
tensive.    The  accompanying  table  presents  a  conspectus  of  the  district 

♦Secretary  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education,  Report  of  1905-6,  p.  78. 


101 

system  as  it  exists  in  the  various  states.*  Xot  all  the  states  men- 
tioned are  organized  under  the  district  system  exclusively.  In  Con- 
necticut^ Iowa,  ^Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas  the 
township  system  is  jDermissive. 

♦The  conspectus  and  the  tables  to  follow  show  only  the  prevailing  forms  of 
school  organization.  Little  more  than  this  is  possible.  To  illustrate  the  difficulty 
of  suggesting-  in  a  table  the  actual  school  organization  and  administration  in  any 
state,  take,  for  instance,  the  great  variety  of  forms  of  administration  in  the  stat^ 
of  Connecticut.  Connecticut 'has  a  peculiarly  mixed  system.  The  township  system 
prevails  in  ninety  of  its  towns  and  the  district  system  in  seventy-eight.  In  eighty- 
five  of  the  ninety  towns  the  legal  name  of  the  board  is  "town  school  committee," 
but  in  the  other  five  towns  the  legal  name  of  the  board  is  "board  of  education." 
The  reason  for  these  exceptions  as  to  name  is  that  under  special  enactments  in 
amending  city  charters  the  name  "board  of  education"  seemed  more  appropriate 
than  "town  school  committee."  In  seventy-seven  of  the  towns  under  the  district 
system  the  regular  name  of  the  board  is  "board  of  school  visitors."  The  other 
town  under  this  system  has  a  special  form  of  school  organization  and  the  legal 
name  of  the  board  is  "board  of  education."  In  all  of  the  towns  but  two  the 
boards  are  elected  \iy  the  people.  In  the  two  exceptions  the  members  of  the  board 
are  appointed  by  the  mayor.  In  almost  all  of  the  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight 
towns  the  members  of  the  board  are  elected  for  terms  of  three  years.  In  towns 
which  have  only  three  members  on  their  boards  the  law  provides  that  the  elections 
may  be  either  annual  or  bienniaT,  as  the  town  may  determine.  In  towns  which 
have  consolidated  their  districts  and  elected  "town  school  committees,"  the  com- 
mittee may  consist  of  three,  six,  nine  or  twelve  members,  as  the  town  shall  deter- 
mine, and  the  same  is  true  with  regard  to  the  number  of  members  of  district 
boards.  One  town  which  is  under  the  town  system  of  management  has  a  board 
of  nine  members,  appointed  by  the  mayor  for  terms  of  three  years.  Another  under 
the  same  systein  has  a  board  of  seven  members.  One  member  is  elected  by  the 
voters  of  the  town  and  six  are  elected  by  wards,  the  voters  of  each  ward  electing 
two  for  terms  of  four  years  eacli.  The  one  member  elected  by  the  town  is  elected 
for  a  term  of  two  years.  In  another  town  under  the  town  system  the  seven  mem- 
bers of  the  board  are  appointed  by  the  mayor  for  terms  of  four  years  each. 

In  regard  to  the  district  school  officers,  the  Connecticut  law  provides  that  the 
committee  shall  not  exceed  three  in  number.  In  most  of  the  districts,  however, 
the  committee  consists  of  one  person.  The  term  of  district  officers  is  one  year. 
Any  school  district  which  had  by  its  last  enumeration  not  less  than  two  hundred 
children  between  four  and  sixteen  years  of  age  may  vote  to  elect  its  committee 
under  a  special  provision  of  the  law,  and  in  that  case  it  can  have  a  committee  of 
three  members,  each  member  being  elected  for  three  years. 

For  this  detailed  information  in  regard  to  the  educational  system  of  Connecticut, 
the  Commission  is  indebted  to  Mr.  A.  J.  Wright.  Chief  Clerk  in  the  office  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  Connecticut  State  Board  of  Education. 


102 
Table  I. 


Showing  the  Title,  Kvmbei;  Method  of  Appointment  or  Election, 
Term,  and  the  Principal  Powers  and  Duties  of  District  School  Offi- 
cers in  the  States  Under  District  School  Organization. 


Title. 


No, 


Election  or 
appointment. 


Term. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


Alabama. 


Arkansas. 


Arizona. 


California. 


Trustees . 


Directors. 


Trustees 


Trustees 


By  people 


By  people 


By  people  . . . 


By  people 


1.  To  enumerate  children  within 
.school  agre.  2.  To  care  for  all 
school  property.  3.  To  nomi- 
nate to  county  board  teacliers 
for  their  own  district.  4.  To 
visit  schools.  5.  To  perform 
other  duties  required  by  coun- 
ty  board    

1.  To  have  charge  of  school  af- 
fairs and  educational  interests 
in  their  district.  2.  To  have 
care  and  custody  of  scr^ol 
property.  3.  To  build  or  hire 
school  buildings.  4.  To  em- 
ploy teachers.  5.  '.?o  suspend 
pupils.  6.  To  report  to  county 
examiner    

1.  To  prescribe  and  enforce  rules 
for  government  of  schools. 
2.  To  manage  and  control 
school  property.  3.  To  purchase 
school  furniture  and  appa- 
ratus. 4.  To  build,  rent,  fur- 
nish and  repair  school  build- 
ings. 5.  To  convey  district 
property.  6.  To  employ  teach- 
ers. 7.  To  expel  pupils,  or 
to  exclude  children  under  six. 
8.  To  enforce  prescribed 
course  of  study  and  text 
books.  9.  To  appoint  district 
librarians.  10.  To  admit  pu- 
pils from  other  districts.  11. 
To  appoint  census  marshal. 
12.  To  visit  schools.  13.  To 
report  to  county  superinten- 
dent     

1.  To  prescribe  rules  for  govern- 
ment of  schools.  2.  To  man- 
age school  property.  3.  To 
supply  text  books  to  indigent 
children.  4.  To  build  school 
buildings  and  to  rent,  repair 
and  convey  school  property. 
.5.  To  employ  teachers.  6.  To 
suspend  pupils  and  exclude 
certain  children.  7.  To  en- 
force the  use  of  prescribed 
course  of  study  and  text 
books.  8.  To  appoint  district 
librarian.  9.  To  admit  child- 
i-en  from  other  districts.  10. 
To  appoint  census  marshal. 
11.  ,To  visit  schools.  12.  To 
report  to  county  superinten- 
dent     


103 


Ttihic  I — Continued. 


State. 


Election  or 
[  appointment. 


Colorado 


Connecticut 


Delaware  . 


Idaho 


Illinois 


Iowa 


Directors . 


Committee. 


Committee. 


Trustees 


Directors . 


Directors . 


By  people 


By  people 


By  people 


By  people 


By  people 


By  people 


Powers  and  Duties. 


.  To  employ  teachers.  2.  To 
fl.x  cour.se  of  .study  and  pre- 
.scril)e  text  boks.  3.  To  expel 
pupil.s.  4.  To  build,  rent  or 
repair  school  buildings.  5. 
To  provide  books  for  indigent 
children.  6.  To  admit  pupils 
from  other  districts.  7.  To 
report  to  county  superinten- 
dent      

.  To  provide  and  furnisli  school 
buildings.  2.  To  visit  schools. 
:!.  To  provide  text  books  for 
indigent  children.  4.  To  sus- 
pend or  expel  pupils.  n.  To 
employ  teachers.  Note — About 
one-half  the  towns  of  Connec- 
ticut are  under  the  town  sys- 
tem      

.  To  build  and  repair  .school 
hou.ses.  2.  To  emplov  teach- 
ers. 3.  To  visit  schools.  4. 
To  make  regulations  for  the 
government  of  schools.-  o.  To 
control  scliool  finances.  6.  To 
furnisli  text  books  free.  7.  To 
fidmit  pupils  from  other  dis- 
tricts     

.  To  employ  teachers.  2.  To 
have  charge  of  all  school 
property.  3.  To  build,  repair 
and  furnish  school  houses.  4. 
To  liave  control  of  school  li- 
braries. .'').  To  enumerate 
school  children.  G.  To  report 
to  county  superintendent    .... 


1.  To  employ  and  dismiss  teach- 
er.s.  2.  To  adopt  rules  and 
regulations  for  government  of 
schools.  3.  To  visit  schools. 
4.  To  direct  what  branches 
sliall  be  tauglit  and  what  text 
bonks  shall  be  used.  .5.  To 
supply  liooks  to  indigent  chil- 
dren. 6.  To  assign,  suspend 
and  expel  pupils.  7.  To  bor- 
low  money  to  l>uild  school 
houses.  S.  To  grant  special 
holidays.  9.  To  decide  when 
a  school  house  Is  unnecessary, 
unsuitable    or    inconvenient... 

1.  To  give  notice  of  sub-district 
rreetings.  2.  To  employ  teach- 
ers when  authorized  by  town- 
ship board.  3.  To  make  con- 
tracts for  fuel  and  in  like 
matters  when  authorized.  4. 
To  prepai-e  annually  a  list  of 
children  in  the  school  district 
of  school  age.  n.  To  report 
to  the  secretary  of  the  school 
tf)Wiisblp.  G.  May  have  in- 
dustrial exposition  held.  7. 
Must  enforce  compulsory  at- 
tendance law   


lOi 


Table  I — Continued. 


State. 


No. 


Election  or 
appointment. 


Term. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


Kansas . 


Kentucky 


Michigan 


Minnesota 


Mississippi  . . 


Missouri 


Montana. 


Nebraska. 


Directors. 


Trustees 


Directors. 


School  Board 


Trustees 


Directors. 


Trustees 


Directors. 


3  By  people 


By  people  .. 


By  people  , 


By  people 


By  people 


By  people 


By  people 


By  people 


1.  To  have  care  and  keeping  of 
school  property.  2.  To  admit 
pupils  from  other  districts.  3. 
To  employ  teachers.  4.  To 
suspend  pupils.  5.  To  visit 
schools.     6.  To  levy  taxes.... 

1.  To  build  and  furnish  school 
houses.  2.  To  levy  taxes.  3. 
To  employ  and  remove  teach- 
ers. 4.  To  visit  parents  and 
urge  attendance  of  children.  5. 
To  take  school  census.  6.  To 
report  to  county  superinten- 
dent     

1.  To  build  or  hire  school  houses. 
2.  To  levy  taxes.  3.  To  em- 
ploy teachers.  4.  To  have 
care  and  custody  of  school 
property.  5.  To  prescribe  the 
branches  to  be  taught.  6.  To 
furnish  books  for  indigent 
children.  7.  To  suspend  or 
expel  pupils.  8.  To  admit  non- 
resident   pupils 

1.  To  employ  teachers.  2.  To 
adopt  rules  for  organization, 
government  and  instruction  of 
schools.  3.  To  adopt  and  pur- 
chase text  books  when  di- 
rected by  vote  of  district.  4. 
To  admit  non-resident  pupils. 
5.  To  provide  transportation 
for  pupils  residing  over  one- 
half  mile  from  a  school  house. 

1.  To  employ  teachers.  2.  To 
suspend  or  expel  pupils.  3. 
To  visit  schools.  4.  To  care 
for  school  property.  5.  To 
arbitrate  between  teachers 
and   pupils    

1.    To   care    for   school    property. 

2.  To  make  rules  for  govern- 
ment  and   grading   of  schools. 

3.  To  employ  teachers.  4.  To 
visit  schools.  5.  To  exclude 
children  with  contagious  dis- 
eases. 6.  To  take  school  cen- 
sus.    7.  To  levy  taxes 


1.  To  employ  and  discharge 
teachers.  2.  To  enforce  rules 
for  government  of  schools. 
3.  To  rent,  repair  and  insure 
school  houses,  and  to  build 
when  authorized  by  vote.  4. 
To    suspend    or    expel    pupils. 

5.  To  provide  books  for  indi- 
gent children.  6.  To  report 
to  county  superintendent 

To  employ  teachers.  2.  To 
take  school  census.  3.  To  ad- 
mit non-resident  pupils.  4.  To 
provide  for  transportation  of 
pupils.      5.   To  suspend  pupils. 

6.  To  build  or  hire  school 
houses.  7.  To  have  care  and 
custody  of  school  property. . . 


105 


Table  I — Continued. 


state. 


No. 


Election  or 
appointment. 


Term. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


Nevada 


Trustees 


New  Mexico 


Directors . 


New  York Trustees 


North  Dakota, 


Directors 


Oklahoma  ....  Direcfr.Clerk, 
Treasurer ... 


Oregon 


South  Dakota. 


Directors 


District  Board 


Tennessee Advisory  B'd 


By  people 


By  people 


By  people 


By  people 


By  people 


By  people 


By  people 


3  By  people 


1.  To  build,  purchase  or  hire 
School  house.s  when  directed 
by  vote.  L'.  To  employ  teach- 
er.s.  3.  To  visit  schools.  4. 
To  provide  books  for  indigent 
cliildren.     5.  To  trade  schools. 

6.  To  suspend  or  expel  pupils. 

7.  To  unite  contiguou.s  dis- 
tricts. S.  To  enforce  sanitary 
regulations     

1.  To  have  care  and  keeping  of 
school  property.  2.  To  em- 
ploy teachers.  3.  To  take 
school  census.  4.  To  report 
to    county    superintendent.... 

1.  To  have  care  and  custody  of 
school  property.  2.  To  em- 
ploy teachers.  3.  To  levy 
ta.\es.  4.  To  establish  rules 
for  government  of  schools.  5. 
To  report  to  school  commis- 
sioner      

1.  To  have  general  charge  of 
schools.  2.  To  have  care  and 
custody  of  school  property. 
3.  To  employ  teachers.  4.  To 
suspend  pupils.  5.  To  pur- 
cliase  and  loan  text  books.  6. 
To  admit  children  fi-om  other 
districts.       T.    To    levy    taxes. 

8.  To  build  and  repair  school 
houses.  9.  To  take  school  cen- 
sus  

Note — All  the  counties  in  N. 
Dakota  but  five  are  under 
township    organization     


1.  To  build  or  hire  school  houses 
when  authorized  by  vote.  2. 
To  liave  care  and  keeping  of 
.school  property.  3.  To  admit 
pupils  from  adjoining  dis- 
tricts. 4.  To  employ  teachers. 
5.  To  levy  taxes 

1.   To  visit   and   inspect   schools. 

2.  To  employ  teachers.  3.  To 
furnish  apparatus.  4.  To  ad- 
mit pupils  from  other  dis- 
tricts     

1.  To  furnish  and  supply  all 
schools  in  district.  2.  To 
keep  record  of  all  proceedings. 

3.  To  take  school  census.  4. 
To  report  annually  to  county 
superintendent.  5.  To  draw 
and  sign  warrants.  6.  To  em- 
pl<iy  and  dismiss  teachers.  .  .  . 

1.  To  visit  and  inspect  schools. 
2.  To  make  general  recom- 
mendations to  county  board 
for  advancement  of  school  in- 
terests. 3.  To  report  annually 
to  county  l)oard.  Note — Eacli 
county  is  divided  into  five 
.scliool  districts  eacli  of  which 
is  to  correspond  to  a  civil  dis- 
trict if  there  be  that  many 
civil  districts   


100 


Tabic  7— rnncludod. 


State. 


Title. 


No. 


Election  or 
appointment. 


Term. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


Texas Trustees 


Utali 


Trustees 


Virginia. 


Washington.. 


W.  Virginia.. 


Wisconsin  . . . 


Trustees 


Directors. 


Wyoming. 


Bd.of  Educ't'n 


Dirtrict  Board 


Trustees. 


By  people 


By  people 


Appointed  by 
county  sch'l 
trustee  elec- 
toral board . . 


By  people  .. 


By  people 


By  people 


By  people 


To  control  public  schools.  2. 
To  employ  and  dismiss  teach- 
ers. 3.  To  expel  pupil.s.  4. 
To  determine  number  and  lo- 
cation of  school.s.  5.  To  con- 
tract witli   teacliers 


To  have  general  management 
of  schools  in  district  and  con- 
trol of  all  school  property. 
2.  To  maintain,  locate  or  dis- 
continue scliools.  3.  To.  malte 
repairs  and  furnisli  supplies. 
4.  To  employ  teachers.  .5.  To 
take  school  census.  6.  To  es.- 
talilish  and  maintain  school 
libraries    


I.  To  enforce  school  laws.  2. 
To  employ  and  dismiss  teach- 
ers. 3.  To  suspend  or  expel 
pupils.  4.  To  take  school 
census.  5.  To  visit  and  in- 
spect scliools.  6.  To  have 
care  and  custody  of  school 
property 

1.  To  employ  and  dismiss  teach- 
ers. 2.  To  enforce  scliool  law. 
3.  To  provide  supplies.  4.  To 
build  or  remove  school  houses. 

5.  To  suspend  or  expel  pupils. 

6.  To  provide  free  text  books. 

1.  To  appoint  trustees  of  sub- 
districts.  2.  To  employ  teach- 
ers in  graded  schools  and  de- 
termine salaries.  3.  To  have 
general  supervision  of  schools. 

1.  To  countersign  all  orders 
drawn  on  treasurer.  2.  To 
appear  for  and  on  behalf  of 
district  in  all  actions  brought 
by  and  against  it   

1.  To  make  all  contracts,  pur- 
chases, payments  and  sales 
for  procuring  school  house 
site.  2.  To  remove  pupils  for 
disorderly  conduct.  3.  To  ad- 
mit pupils  from  adjoining  dis- 
tricts. 4.  To  employ  teachers. 
5.  To  transact  business  of 
electors   if  so   delegated 


Advantages  of  the  District  System. 

The  cliicf  argument  in  favor  of  tlie  district  system  is  its  democratic 
nature.  The  district  has  been  called  "prohably  the  most  communistic 
as  well  as  democratic  feature  of  our  political  institutions."*  The  great 
obstacle  encountered  by  Horace  Mann  in  his  attempt  to  change  the 
jMassachusetts  system  from  district  organization  to  town  organization 
was  the  idea  that  the  surrender  of  the  district  system  was  in  some  way 

*Report  Commissioner  of  Education,   1S94-5,   p.   1457. 


107 

a  surrender  of  deinoeratie  priiui])les.  There  was  the  same  objection 
then  to  centralization  tliat  is  always  heard  when  tliere  is  a  movement 
towards  integration  and  system. 

Xow  there  can  he  no  (juestion  as  to  tlie  democratic  nature  of  district 
organization.  It  is.  in  a|i|)earantT  at  least,  "of  the  ])eople,  by  the  people, 
for  the  people."  I'nder  this  system  tlie  people  have  an  immediate 
voice  in  the  management  of  their  schools.  And  such  interest  as  the 
people  have  taken  in  this  nuitter,  and  the  expression  of  their  will  in  the 
district  school  meeting,  have  been  a  valuable  means  in  the  development 
of  free  institutions.  The  distriet  has  been,  so  to  speak,  a  kind  of 
school  of  ci\il  governiueiil.  It  has  been  the  area  upon  which  has  l)een 
worked  out  some  of  the  important  questions  of  our  democracy.  But 
in  the  development  of  a  (K'lnocracy  there  always  comes  a  time  when 
efficiency  requires  the  surrender  of  immediate  action  to  representative 
action.  And  uowliere  in  the  growth  of  a  democracy  is  that  point 
sooner  reached  than  in  the  management  of  schools.  When  county 
government  and  state  government  are  instituted  1joth  of  these  larger 
units,  as  the  history  of  the  country  has  shown,  will  exercise  a  certain 
control  over  the  schools  because  both  recognize  that  education  is  a 
county  and  a  state  function  as  well  as  a  district  function.  The  district 
system  is,  indeed,  democratic.  But  pure  democracy  in  education,  as 
in  oui'  political  government,  is  impossible.  Under  the  township  sys- 
tem the  schools  are  controlled  by  the  people  of  the  townshij).  The 
township  system  is,  therefore,  in  one  sense  as  democratic  as  the  dis- 
trict system  and  it  is  far  more  effective.  The  abolishment  of  the  dis- 
trict system  would  involve  the  surrender  of  no  real  democratic  princi- 
ple unless  the  presenation  of  a  few  minor  offices  is  a  matter  of  prin- 
ciple. Few  would  contend  for  the  primacy  of  the  district  in  matters 
political,  in  the  assessment  of  property,  the  construction  of  roads  and 
bridges  and  the  care  of  the  poor.  Why,  then,  should  it  be  essential 
in  educational  organization?  Democracy  does  not  imply  complete  local 
autonomy  in  anything. 

Another  argument  in  favor  of  the  district  system  is  that  great  re- 
sults have  been  achieved  undei-  it.  This  is  the  universal  and  inevitable 
argument  of  conservatism.  When  a  change  in  the  form  of  any  institu- 
tion of  long  standing  is  suggested  the  conservative  always  magnifies 
the  benefits  derived  from  the  old  form  and  argues  from  these  the  neces- 
sity of  its  contimuince.  It  therefore  b.aj)pens  that  a  powerful  argument 
for  any  old  institution  is  that  it  exists.  x\n  established  institution  or 
custom  seems  to  gain  strength  ever\-  day  that  it  is  continued  and,  no 
nuitter  how  irrational  or  inconvenient  it  is,  the  infiuence  of  tinu^  seems 
to  raise  the  presumption  of  its  superiority.  But  there  is  nothing  that 
exists,  no  organization  or  institution,  that  has*  not  a  relative  justifica- 
tion. Long  continued  existence  is  proof,  of  advantage.  Had  no  bene- 
fits been  derived  from  the  district  system  it  could  not  have  persisted. 
The  district  system  has.  as  President  Butler  renuirks.  "suited  the  con- 
ditions of  country  life;  it  has  resulted  in  schools  adapted  to  the  thought 
and  wants  of  farming  peo])le ;  it  has  done  something  to  educate  the 
people  themselves,  parents  as  well  as  children,  in  civic  pride  and  pa- 


108 

triotism;  it  has  afforded  a  meeting  place  for  the  people  within  comfort- 
able reach  of  every  home."*  This  to  most  minds  (not  to  President 
Butler's  of  course)  is  a  suflficient  justification  of  the  existence  of  the 
district  system  and  a  sutlicieut  reason  for  its  continuance.  The  fallacy 
is  in  failing  to  recognize  the  superior  benefits  which  might  be  derived 
from  another  system. 

Still  another  argument  sometimes  advanced  in  favor  of  the  district 
system,  though  akin  to  the  one  just  mentioned,  is  the  sentimental  ar- 
gument. Such  phrases  as  "the  little  red  school  house,"  '"the  American 
district  school,"  etc.,  have  a  powerful  influence  in  the  minds  of  the 
people,  and  the  sentiment  back  of  them  will  long  stand  in  the  way  of 
any  movement  towards  a  closer  and  more  systematic  orsfanization  of 
our  schools.  But,  as  was  previously  'pointed  out,  the  district  system 
is  not  essential  to  the  existence  of  district  schools.  The  best  thing  that 
can  be  done  for  the  district  school  is  to  adopt  the  township  system. 

These  arguments,  and  still  others  of  lesser  weight  which  might  be 
mentioned,  are  simply  no  arguments  at  all  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
educational  needs  of  a  highly  developed  community  like  that  of  Illinois. 
In  such  a  community  the  school  has  long  ceased  to  be  an  institution  of 
merely  local  interest.  The  community  like  the  individual  does  not  exist 
for  itself  alone.  It  is  a  part  of  a  larger  whole  and  the  interests  of  the 
larger  whole  should  be  the  essential  consideration  so  far  as  educational 
affairs  are  concerned.  The  people  of  the  State  should  control  the 
schools  of  the  State.  It  is  not  a  matter  of  indifference  to  one  community 
that  the  schools  of  another  community  are  of  low  grade  any  more  than 
it  is  a  matter  of  indifference  to  one  farmer  that  another  farmer  neglects 
his  farm  and  allows  it  to  grow  up  in  weeds.  For  the  good  of  all,  all 
schools  should  be  good.  But  since  wealth  is  unequally  distributed  there 
must  be,  under  the  district  system,  great  inequality  in  the  educational 
opportunities  of  the  children  of  different  districts — ^good  school  houses, 
good  teachers  and  long  terms  in  one  district,  unsuitable  houses,  poor 
teachers  and  short  terms  in  another.  This  tends  directly  towards  the 
stratification  of  society  in  classes  and  is,  therefore,  from  this  point  of 
view,  in  the  highest ,  degree  undemocratic.  For  this  reason,  if  for  no 
other,  the  highly  developed  school  system  is  practically  impossible  under 
district  organization.  Whatever  may  be  said,  then,  for  that  form  of  or- 
ganization in  regard  to  its  past  benefits  and  adaptation,  it  is  no  longer 
justified  either  on  political  or  social  grounds  and  certainly  it  is  to  be  con- 
demned from  the  standpoint  of  almost  every  pedagogical  principle.  It 
must,  therefore,  in  the  different  states,  gradually  but  surely  give  way  to  a 
more  effective  scheme  of  authoritative  and  administrative  school  organiz- 
ation. In  Illinois  it  should  give  place  at  once  to  a  system  that  will  more 
nearly  equalize  the  educational  opportunities  of  the  children  of  the  State. 
There  is  no  justification  for  the  condition  wherein  the  accident  of  a 
child's  birth  shall  determine  the  kind  of  education  he  shall  receive.  The 
good  of  the  State  requires  that  every  child,  no  matter  where  it  is  born, 
shall  have  an  opportunity  far  better  than  some  of  the  districts  of  the 

•Education  of  the  United   States,  Vol.   I,   pp.    8-9. 


109 

State  afford  for  at  least  a  common  school  education.  The  Constitution 
of  Illinois  declares  that  "the  General  Assembly  shall  provide  a  thorough 
and  efficient  s^'stem  of  free  schools,  whereby  all  children  of  this  State 
may  receive  a  good  common  school  education."  Under  the  district  sys- 
tem, as  it  usually  operates,  this  is  practically  impossible. 

■The  Township  System. 

The  town  or  townshij)  system  is  general  in  Maine,  Xew  Hampshire, 
Vermont,  Massachusetts,  llhode  Island,  Xew  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio 
and  Indiana.  It  is  permissive  in  Connecticutj  as  already  remarked, 
and  more  than  half  the  towns  in  that  state  are  under  township  or- 
ganization. It  is  permissive  also  in  Iowa,  the  upper  peninsula  of  Mich- 
igan, Wisconsin,  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas.  In  Xorth  Dakota  all 
the  counties  but  iive  are  under  township  organization.  In  other  states 
in  which  the  townsliiji  is  a  political  unit  in.  at  least  a  part  of  the  state, 
as  in  Illinois,  Missouri  and  Nebraska,  township  organization  is  per- 
haps possible  although  there  is  no  conscious  provision  for  it  in  the 
school  law. 

The  township  system,  of  course,  makes  tJie  township  the  unit  of 
school  government.  A  single  school"  board  has  control  of  all  the  ele- 
mentary schools  of  the  township  and  also  of  the  high  school  if  there 
should  be  one.  The  townsliip  system  means,  or  is  intended  to  mean, 
the  systematic  organization  of  the  schools  of  a  township  under  a  single 
authority.  The  methods  of  constituting  this  authority  and  the  particu- 
lar powers  and  duties  assigned  to  it  vary  considerably.  Control  is 
sometimes  lodged  in  a  school  committee,  as  in  Massachusetts,  Maine 
and  Rhode  Island,  sometimes  in  a  board  of  education  as  in  Xew  Hamp- 
shire, Xew  Jersey  and  Ohio.  In  Pennsylvania  and  Vermont  a  board 
of  directors  is  the  central  authority.  In  Indiana  it  is  a  single  trustee. 
The  following  table  is  designed  to  present  the  main  facts  in  regard  to 
the  form  of  town  or  township  organization  in  those  states  in  which 
it  has  in  any  large  measure  displaced  the  district  system. 


110 


Table  II. 


Shoiring  the  Title,  yiimher.  Method  of  A piiointnient  or  Election, 
Term  of  Otfice  and  the  Most  Important  Powers  and  Duties  of  Town 
or  Township  School  Officers  in  States  Under  Town  or  Township  Or- 
ganization. 


State. 


Title. 


No. 


Election  or 
appointment. 


Term.; 


Powers  and  Duties. 


I 
Connecticut ..  Committee 


Indiana . 


Iowa*. 


Trustees 


Bd.  of  Direct's 


Maine Committee 


By  people 


By  people 


By  people  .. 


By  people 


To  manage  school  property  of 
town.  2.  To  examine,  employ 
and  dismiss  teachers.  3.  To 
enforce  child-labor  law.  4. 
To  purchase  text  books  if  di- 
rected by  town.  5.  To  super- 
intend hif?h  schools.  6.  To 
provide  evening  school  in- 
struction     


1.  To  employ  teachers.  2.  To 
locate  and  establish  schools, 
and  to  build  and  furnish 
school  houses.  3.  To  estab- 
lish a  graded  high  school.  4. 
To  have  care  and  custody  of 
school  property.  5.  To  dis- 
continue schools  with  aver- 
age attendance  of  15  or  fewer 
(obligatory  if  average  attend- 
ance is  12  or  fewer).  6.  To 
report  to  county  •  superinten- 
dent      

Note — A  director  for  each 
school  is  elected  by  the  peo- 
ple or  appointed  by  the  trus- 
tees and  acts  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  trustees 

1.  To  prescribe  course  of  study. 
2.  To  make  rules  for  govern- 
ing of  directors  of  sub-dis- 
tricts, teachers  and  pupils, 
and  for  the  care  of  school 
property.  3.  To  locate  school 
sites  and  to  build  or  repair 
school  houses.  4.  To  employ 
or  to  dismiss  teachers  and  to 
authorize  sub-directors  to  em- 
ploy. 5.  To  visit  schools.  6. 
To  expel  pupils.  7.  To  furnish 
books  to  indigent  children.  .  .  . 

1.  To  have  general  management 
of  schools  and  care  and  cus- 
tody of  school  property.  2. 
To  elect  superintendent  of 
schools  who  has  power  to  ex- 
amine and  employ  teachers.  3. 
To  prescribe  uniform  series 
of  text  books.  4.  To  expel  pu- 
pils   or    exclude    them    if    not 

\  accinated     

Note — The  superintendent  of 
the  town  is  ex  officio  secre- 
tary of  the  school  committee 
and  is  clothed  with  important 
powers.  Two  or  more  tow^ns 
may  unite  to  elect  a  superin- 
tendent     


*The  Iowa  system  Is  a  combination  of  the  township  system  and  the  district  svs- 
tem.     About  two-thirds  of  the  state  is  under  the  township  system. 


Ill 

Tahle  i2— Coutimied. 


State. 


Title. 


M«       Election  or     t^,^ 
No-   appointment,    ^erm. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


Massachusetts 


Michigan— 
(Upper  Penin 
sula]  


Committee. 


Trustees . 


N.  Hampshire|Board, moder- 
ator, clerk, 
treasurer,  au- 
ditor, etc 


New  Jersey.. 


N.  Dakota 


Ohio, 


Board.. 


Directors . 


Board. 


By  people. 


By  people. 


By  people. 


By  people. 


By  people... 


5  By  people. 


To  examine,  employ  and  dis- 
mis.s  teachers.  2.  To  visit 
scliGols.  3.  To  pre.scribe 
course  of  study  and  tt*<t 
books,  and  to  loan  text  books 
free  of  charge.  -1.  To  elect 
a  town  superintendent  of 
schools.  5.  To  supervise  ath- 
letic organizations    

To  purchase  sites  and  to  erect 
and  furnish  school  buildinj^s. 
2.  To  employ  teachers.  Z.  To 
provide  books  for  district  li- 
braries. 4.  To  make  by-laws 
relating  to  taking  school  cen- 
sus,  and   to  visitinf?  scliools.  . 


1.  To  elect  supei-intendent  and 
clothe  liim  with  sucli  powers 
as  may  be  deemed  advisable. 
'1.  To  employ  and  dismiss 
teachers.  3.  To  i^rescribe  reg- 
ulations for  management, 
studies,  classification  and  dis- 
cipline of  schools.  5.  To  ex- 
amine teachers.  6.  To  pur- 
cliase  and  loan  text  books  free 
of  charge.  7.  To  report  to  stv- 
lectmen  and  to  Superintendent 
of   Public    Instruction ■.  . 


1.  To  employ  and  dismiss  teach- 
ers. 2.  To  make  rules  for 
government  of  schools.  3.  To 
purchase,  sell  and  improve 
school  grounds.  4.  To  select 
text  books,  and  witli  county 
superintendent  p  r  e  s  c  r  i  1)  e 
course  of  study.  '>.  To  suspend 
or  expel  pupils.  6.  To  provide 
text  books  and  school  sup- 
plies. 7.  To  report  to  counlV' 
superintendent     

See  under  Table  1 — North  Da- 
kota lias  townshap  organiza- 
tion in  all  counties  but  five .  . 


1.  To  make  rules  for  govern- 
ment of  schools.  2.  To  em- 
ploy superintendent  of  district, 
and  teacliers.  3.  To  centralize 
schools  when  autliorized  by 
vote    

Note — In  townsliip  districts  a 
director  is  elected  by  tlie  peo- 
ple who  acts  under  the  direc- 
tion of  tlie  township  board.  .  . 


112 

Table  5— Concluded. 


State. 


Title. 


No. 


Election  or   I 
appointment.  I 


Term. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


Pennsylvania 


Directors  and 
controllers.. 


Rhode  Island.  Committee. 


Vermont , 


Directors . 


By  people. 


3  By  people, 
to 


By  people. 


1.  To  establi-sh  common  schools 
and  kinderg'artens.  2.  To 
make  rules  to  prevent  intro- 
duction and  spread  of  contag- 
ious or  infectious  diseases.  3. 
To  appoint  truant  officers.  4. 
To  levy  tax  and  borrow 
money  for  buildin.?  purposes. 
5.  To  adopt  and  purchase  ser- 
ies of  text  bool\s,  and  direct 
what  brandies  shall  be 
taught.  6.  To  visit  schools. 
7.  To  employ  teachers.  8.  To 
elect  county  superintendent. 
9.  To  report  to  county  super- 
intendent     

1.  To  elect  superintendent  and 
teachers.  2.  To  alter  and 
discontinue  school  districts.  3. 
To  locate  and  furnish  scliool 
houses.  4.  To  visit  schools. 
5.  To  make  rules  for  govern- 
ment and  management  of 
schools.  6.  To  suspend  pupils. 
7.  To  change  text  books 

1.  To  have  care  of  school  prop- 
erty and  management  of 
.  schools.  2.  To  determine  num- 
ber of  schools.  3.  To  employ 
teachers.  4.  To  purchase 
sites  and  build  school  houses 
when  authorized  by  vote 


Typical  Township  Ststeoms. 

As  Massachusetts  was  the  first  to  adopt  the  town  system  and  as  the 
system  there  is  possibly  the  most  effective  system  of  rural  school  or- 
ganization in  the  country,  we  present  the  plan  of  its  organization  more 
fully  than  it  appears  in  the  table.  Every  town  in  Massachusetts  elects 
annually  a  member  or  members  of  a  school  committee.  This  com- 
mittee consists  of  three  persons  or  a  multiple  of  three.  Women  are 
eligible  to  the  office.  The  powers  and  duties  of  the  committee  are  ex- 
tensive. It  has  general  charge  and  superintendence  of  all  the  public 
schools,  industrial  schools,  evening  schools  and  evening  high  schools. 
It  may  determine  the  number  of  weeks  in  each  year  and  the  hours 
during  which  such  evening  schools  shall  be  kept,  and  may  make  reg- 
ulations in  regard  to  attendance  at  these  schools.  It  has  full  power 
not  merely  in  regard  to  the  employment  and  dismissal  of  teachers  and 
their  tenure  of  office,  but  also  in  regard  to  their  examination.  It  di- 
rects what  books  shall  be  used  in  the  public  schools  and  prescribes,  as 
far  as  possible,  the  course  of  studies  and  the  exercises  to  be  pursvied  in 
them.  It  purchases  at  the  expense  of  the  town  the  text  books  and 
other  school  supplies  used  in  the  public  schools,  and  if  instruction  is 
given  in  the  use  of  tools  and  in  cooking  it  may  purchase  and  loan  the 


113 

tools,  implements  and  materials  that  are  necessary.  It  even  supervises 
and  controls  all  the  athletic  organizations  of  the  public  schools.  For- 
merly it  was  required  to  visit  and  inspect  the  schools,  but  it  has  relieved 
itself  wholly  of  that  duty  by  the  employment  of  a  superintendent.  If 
no  such  school  officer  is  employed,  however,  the  committee  or  one  of  its 
members  must  visit  each  school  in  'its  to^vn  on  some  day  during  the 
first  week  after  the  opening  of  the  school  for  the  purpose  of  organiz- 
ing and  making  a  careful  examination  of  the  school  and  of  ascertain- 
ing that  the  pupils  are  properly  supplied  with  books,  and  also  on  some 
day  during  the  two  weeks  preceding  the  close  of  the  school.  Visits  to 
schools  without  town  superintendents  must  be  made  each  month  with- 
out giving  previous  notice  of  the  visit  to  the  instructors. 

The  benefits  of  the  town  system  in  Massachusetts  are  the  same  as 
the  benefits  of  the  system  elsewhere.  They  have  been  summed  up  by 
T.  M.  Balliet,  formerly  of  Springfield,  Mass.,  but  now  of  New  York 
University,  as  follows :  "1.  Uniformity  of  text  books.  2.  The  hiring 
of  teachers  by  the  town  committee  which  is  less  influenced  by  local 
sentiment  than  a  district  committee  or  a  prudential  committeeman 
would  be.  3.  Tlie  erecting  of  better  school  houses.  When  the  town,  as 
a  whole,  must  pay  for  the  erecting  of  a  schoolhouse,  the  very  jealousy 
which  the  district  system  develops,  prompts  people  to  demand  better 
school  houses  than  they  themselves  would  be  willing  to  pay  for.  In 
most  towns  there  is  a  village  in  which  most  of  the  taxable  property  is 
found.  The  rural  sections  of  the  town,  therefore,  benefit  by  voting  a 
higher  tax.  for  schoolhouses  by  Avhich  the  people  of  the  village  must 
contribute  to  the  cost  of  school  houses  in  the  rural  districts.  4.  Super- 
vision of  schools  by  experts  is  made  possible.  While  the  rural  schools 
of  ^Massachusetts,  up  to  1888,  had  poorer  sunervision  than  the  schools 
of  the  middle  states  and  many  of  the  western  states,  where  county 
supervision  has  prevailed  for  many  years,  since  1888  there  has  been 
developed  in  Massachusetts  a  system  of  town  supervision  which  is 
probably  the  best  system  of  supervision  of  rural  schools  in  the  country. 
Under  this  system,  two  or  three  towns  which  are  too  poor  individually 
to  pay  a  superintendent,  may  combine  and  engage  a  superintendent  in 
common.  All  towns  also  receive  some  aid  from  the  state  to  make  up 
the  salary  of  the  superintendent.  This  law  Avas  originally  permissive; 
in  1893  it  was  made  compulsory.  As  early  as  18G9  a  law  was  passed 
])ermitting  towns  to  pay  for  the  transportation  of  pupils  from  thinly 
settled  sections  to  the  more  densly  settled  sections.  In  this  way,  pro- 
vision was  made  for  the  gradual  concentration  of  the  schools  of  thinly 
settled  towns.  This  law  was  a  necessary  accompaniment  to  the  later 
law  abolishing  the  district  system  and  paved  the  way  for  the  final 
abolition."* 

The  township  systems  in  Pennsylvania  and  in  Indiana  are  quite  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  Massachusetts.  In  Pennsylvania  there  is  a  district 
board  of  school  directors  elected  for  three  vears.  This  board  employs 
teachers,  grades  the   schools,  prescribes  the  course  of  study  and   the 

•BuHetin  No.  33,   New  York  State  Educational  Department,   p.   37. 

—SEC 


114 

text  books,  visits  schools,  establishes  schools  aud  builds  houses,  levies 
taxes  for  school  and  school  buildings,  publishes  a  iiuancial  statement 
and  elects  the  county  superintendent.  In  Indiana  the  authority  over  the 
schools  of  the  township  is  centered  in  one  officer,  the  school  trustee, 
who  is  elected  by  the  i^eople  for  two  years.  This  officer  performs  all 
the  duties  ordinarily  assigned  to  a  township  board  and  has  power  to 
close  all  schools  in  which  the  average  attendance  is  less  than  fifteen. 
He  must  close  a  school  if  the  average  attendance  is  less  than  twelve. 
Township  centralization  has  thus  been  carried  farther  in  Indiana  than 
in  any  other  state.  It  has  probably  been  carried  too  far.  The  supreme 
court  of  the  state  has  declared  that  "the  township  trustee  is  clothed 
with  almost  autocratic  powers  in  all  school  matters.  The  voters  and 
tax  payers  of  the  township  have  little,  if  indeed  any  voice,  or  part  in 
the  control  of  the  details  of  educational  affairs.  So  far  as  actual  au- 
thority is  concerned  the  trustee  is  the  corporation,  although  in  contem- 
plation of  law  it  is  otherwise."*  Indiana  has  perhaps  illustrated  in  its 
form  of  township  organization  the  truth  of  the  old  adage  that  there 
can  be  too  miK-h  even  of  a  good  thing. 

The  Couxty  System. 

The  remaining  unit  of  school  organization  is  the  county.  The  adop- 
tion of  this  unit  in  some  of  the  southern  states  arose  perhaps  not  from 
a  conscious  effort  to  adopt  the  school  organization  to  the  educational 
needs  of  the  State,  but  from  the  fact  that  the  district  and  township  as 
political  units  did  not  exist.  County  organization  is  effective  in  some 
of  the  states  and  is  looked  upon  by  many  educationists  with  favor. 
Superintendent  Stockwell  of  Xorth  Dakota  says,  (Eeport  1905-6,  page 
27),  "A  county  board  of  education  elected  by  the  people  and  control- 
ing  the  educational  affairs  of  the  county  especially  as  to  the  rural 
school  would  be  a  long  step  in  advance  so  far  as  the  result  upon  educa- 
tional progress  is  concerned.  The  board  would  elect  as  its  professional 
adviser  a  county  superintendent  of  schools  who  would  direct,  subject 
to  the  approval  of  the  county  board  of  education,  the  strictly  educa- 
tional affairs  of  the  county.  That  portion  of  the  work  which  pertains 
to  the  levying  of  taxes,  issuing  of  bonds,  building;  and  repairing  of 
school  houses,  would  be  under  the  control  of  the  board."  He  advances 
the  following  arguments  in  favor  of  such  a  board :  "First,  this  board 
is  responsible  to  the  people;  second,  it  means  a  uniform  standard  of 
education  for  each  county;  third,  under  the  direction  of  the  State  and 
county  superintendents,  it  would  mean  a  uniform  standard  for  the 
State;  fourth,  it  would  result  in  wiser  and  more  economical  (in  the 
best  sense)  expenditure  of  school  moneys ;  sixth,  the  county  system  is 
in  vogue  in  many  of  our  states  and  is  uniformly  acceptable."  President 
Seerley  of  the  Iowa  State  ISTormal  School  recommends  to  the  Iowa 
Educational  Commission  the  adoption  of  the  county    as    a    imit,    ex- 


*Quoted  in  the  Repoi-t  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1894-5,  Vol.  II,  p.  1460, 
foot  note. 


115 

cluJiiig  thereironi  the  present  city  and  town  orij;anizatious.*  We  find 
also  that  in  Georgia,  ior  instance,  where  the  county  unit  has  had  a 
thorough  trial,  it  has  given  satisfaction.  Superintendent  Lawton  B. 
Evans  of  Kichmond  county,  Georgia,  in  an  article  in  the  Educational 
Eeview,  April,  190G,  (Keprinted  in  part  in  report  of  N.  E.  A.,  1897, 
l^age  507)  argues  very  strongly  for  the  county  system  and  presents 
the  successful  eilueational  work  of  his  own  county  as  proof  of  its 
efficiency. 

The  chief  argument  against  the  county  system  is  that  the  county 
is  too  largo  a  unit,  as  the  district  is  too  small  a  unit.  It  lends  itself 
well  to  the  systematic  organization  of  school  forces,  but  the  county 
perhaps  is  too  large  an  area  for  the  highest  administrative  efficiency  of 
a  single  authority. 

At  all  events  the  Cjuestion  of  adopting  county  organization  in  Illinois 
is  perhaps  an  impractical  one.  For  this  reason,  and  for  the  further 
reason  that  we  believe  the  township  system  most  nearly  approximates 
the  ideal,  it  has  not  been  considered  worth  while  to  enter  upon  an  ex- 
tended discussion  of  the  county  system.  We  append,  however,  a  con- 
spectus of  the  district  organization  of  the  counties  in  the  various  states 
that  have  adopted  the  county  system. 

Table  III. 

Showing  the  Title,  Number',  Method  of  Annointment  or  Election, 
Term  of  Office  and  the  Most  Important  Poiuers  and  Duties  of  Dis- 
trict School  Officers  in  States  under  C&iinty  Organization. 


Title. 


M-      Election  or      t„_.^ 
No-  appointment,  r^"™- 


California. 


Florida . 


Georgia . 


Trustees . 


Supervisor. 


Trustees  , 


By  people 


By  county  b'd 


By  people 


Powers  and  Duties, 


1.  To  prescribe  and  enforce  rules 
not  inconsistent  witli  law  or 
tliose  prescribed  by  State 
Board  of  Education.  2.  To 
manage  and  control  school 
property.  3.  To  supply  text 
books  to  indigent  children.  4. 
To  rent,  furnish,  repair  and 
insure  school  property.  5.  To 
employ  teachers.  6.  To  re- 
port to  county  superintendent. 

I.  To  supervise  work  and  man- 
agement of  school,  construc- 
tion, rental,  repair,  etc.,  of 
school  buildings,  and  report 
to  Board  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion. 2.  To  co-operate  with 
teacher  in  efforts  to  elevate 
standard  of  school.  3.  To  re- 
view  suspensions    

Note — Jn  special  school  districts 
trustees  are  elected  and 
vested  with  the  power  of  the 
supervisor    

1.  To  supervise  schools.  2.  To 
recommend  teachers  to  coSnty 
board.  3.  To  visit  schools.  4. 
To  report  to  county  board. . . 


•Midland  Schools,  February,  1908,  p.  IIS. 


IIG 


Table  77J— Concluded. 


State. 


TiUe. 


No. 


Election  or 
appointment. 


Term. 


Powers  and  Duties. 


Louisiana . . . 


Maryland . 


N.  Carolina.. 


Oregon 


S.  Carolina 


Tennessee  .. 


Visiting  Trus 
tees — 


Trustees , 


Committee  . .. 


Directors. 


Trustees . 


Advisory  b'd 


By  parish  b'd 


By  CO.  school, 
commiss'ers, 


By  county  b'd 


3* 


By  people 


By  county  b'd 


By  people  . . . . 


1.  To  make  quarterly  reports  to 
parish  boards  of  the  condi- 
tion of  schools,  and  needful 
suggestions  in  regard  to 
schools     


1.  To  have  care  of  schools  and 
school  property.  2.  To  employ 
a  principal  teacher,  subject 
to  confirmation  of  county 
board.  3.  To  visit  schools.  4. 
To  exercise  general  supervi- 
sion over  schools 

1.  To  take  school  census.  2.  To 
have  care  and  control  of 
school  property.  3.  To  employ 
teachers     

Note  —  Some  counties  have 
adopted  the  township  system 
so  that  the  committees  ap- 
pointed are  township  commit- 
tees     

1.  To  audit  claims  against  dis- 
trict.     2.   To  employ  teachers. 

3.  To  control  school  property. 

4.  To  suspend  and  dismiss  pu- 
pils      

1.  To  have  management  and 
control  of  schools.  2.  To  visit 
schools.  3.  To  provide  school 
houses.  4.  To  employ  teach- 
ers. 5.  To  suspend  or  dismiss 
pupils    

1.  To  visit  schools.  2.  To  make 
recommendations  to  county 
board.  3.  To  take  school  cen- 
sus. 4.  To  suspend  and  dis- 
miss pupils.  5.  To  report  to 
county  board   

Note — Each  county  is  divided 
into  five  districts 


*Five   in   districts   of  first   class. 


117 


TOWNSHIP  ORGANIZATION. 


The  tendency  in  the  administration  of  school  affairs  is  toward  the 
establishment  of  a  unit  of  school  organization  larger  than  the  district. 
In  a  score  of  states  the  superiority  of  the  town  or  township  as  the  unit 
•of  organization  has  been  recognized  and  the  town  or  township  system  is 
in  operation  in  the  whole  or  in  a  part  of  each  of  these  states.  In  Mich- 
igan, a  state  in  which  the  township  system  is  permissive  m  the  northern 
peninsula,  the  superintendent  of  Dublic  instruction,  in  a  recent  bulletin 
addressed  to  the  population  of  the  rural  districts,  advocates  tlie  exten- 
sion of  the  system  and  declares  the  township  to  be  the  logical  unit  of 
school  organization.  "The  district  system,"  he  says,  "was  founded  a 
^ood  many  years  ago,  and  while  it  may  have  been  wise  and  effective  for 
our  forefathers,  we  believe  that  it  is  neither  wise  nor  effective  in  this 
generation."*  The  Kansas  Educational  Commission,  in  its  report  of 
December,  1908,  recommends  the  adoption  in  that  state  of  the  township 
system,  and  expresses  its  belief  that  "the  proposition  of  a  larger  unit 
of  school  organization  is  fundamental  and  absolutely  essential  to  the 
real  progi'ess  and  development  of  the  schools."  Several  of  the  southern 
states  and  some  of  the  extreme  western  states  make  the  county  the  unit 
of  organization  and  the  county  system  is  recommended  by  the  Iowa 
Educational  Commission  in  a  report  made  to  the  present  session  of  the 
Iowa  legislature.  Everywhere  the  tendency  is  away  from  the  district 
system. 

John  Fiske  said  that  the  township  system  of  political  government  is 
"the  kind  of  government  that  people  are  sure  to  prefer  when  they  have 
once  tried  it  under  favorable  conditions."  The  same  thing  mav  perhaps 
be  truthfully  said  of  township  school  organization.  There  has  been  no 
reversion  to  the  district  system  in  any  place  after  the  township  system 
has  been  thoroughly  tried.  The  present  State  Commissioner  of  common 
schools  of  Ohio  in  speaking  in  his  report  of  1905  in  regard  to  the 
merits  of  the  system  says,  "the  present  law  makes  the  townsliip  the 
unit  and  gives  the  board  of  education  an  opportunity  to  provide  the 
best  and  most  efficient  system  of  schools  for  the  township  as  a  whole. 
I  believe  a  return  to  the  sub-district  plan  would  be  a  long  step  back- 
ward in  our  educational  work."  We  have  failed  to  find  a  single  author- 
itative opinion  unfavorable  to  the  township  system.     The  committee 

•Township  Unit  System  In  Michigan,  by  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction.    Bulletin  No.  32.   1909. 


118 

on  state  school  systems  appointed  by  the  National  Education  Associa- 
tion reported  that  "The  substitution  of  the  township  for  the  district  as 
the  unit  of  organization  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  highest  good  of 
the  ungraded  schools."  The  committee  sent  out  a  circular  letter  to  the 
superintendents  of  the  yarious  states  and  in  its  report  it  quotes  replies 
from  thirteen  of  these  school  officers  strongly  fayoring  the  township 
as  the  unit  of  organization  and  says  that  ''with  but  few  exceptions"  the 
judgment  of  all  the  superintendents  from  whom  replies  were  receiyed 
is  the  same.  The  superintendent  of  Pennsylvania  says,  "We  prefer 
the  township  organization  to  the  district  and  county  organization/' 
and  the  superintendent  of  Indiana  uses  almost  the  same  language  as 

that  previously  quoted  from  the  commissioner  of  Ohio.     "We 

should  consider  it  taking  a  long  step  backward  to  drop  the  township 
and  take  up  the  district  system  again."'  The  superintendents  of  states 
not  under  district  organization  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  substitu- 
tion of  the  township  for  the  district  as  the  unit  of  the  system  would 
result  in  the  increased  efficiency  of  the  common  schools.  The  com- 
mittee on  rural  schools  appointed  by  the  National  Educational  Associa- 
tion in  1895  presented  its  report  in  1897.  For  the  preparation  of  their 
report  four  sub-committees  were  appointed.  One  of  these  sub-com- 
mittees devoted  some  space  to  the  enforcement  of  the  proposition  that 
"The  township  unit  system  is  far  superior  to  the  district  system,  and 
should  be  substituted,  if  practicable,  for  that  system  wherever  it  exists." 
And  the.  general  committee  reported  as  the  result  of  its  investigation 
that  "for  purposes  of  organization,  maintenance,  or  supervision  nothing 
should  be  recognized  as  the  unit  smaller  than  the  township  or  the 
county ;  the  school  district  is  the  most  undesirable  unit  possible."  This, 
we  believe,  is  the  conclusion  to  which  anyone  wall  arrive  who  will  give 
the  subject  careful  study. 

AoyAXTAGES   OF  THE  TOWXSHIP  SYSTEM. 

The  various  'arguments  advanced  to  prove  the  superiority  of  the 
township  system  of  school  organization  over  the  district  system  may  be 
classified  and  arranged  under  three  general  propositions.  First,  the 
township  system  is  more  economical.  Second,  the  township  system 
tends  toward  a  more  equitable  provision  of  educational  opportunities 
for  the  children  of  the  township,  and,  third,  the  township  is  more  con- 
ducive to  the  general  improvement  of  the  schools.  Under  the  first 
proposition  the  following  areruments  may  be  included : 

1.  It  is  financially  less  expensive  than  the  district  system,  for  the  same 
reasons  that  a  large  business  is  relatively  less  expensive  than  a  small  busi- 
ness. 

2.  It  greatly  reduces  the  number  of  school  officials. 

3.  It  tends  to  the  discontinuance  of  schools  that  have  become  too  small 
to  be  operated  efficiently,  and  thus  tends  to  diminish  the  expense  of  school 
maintenance. 

4.  It  prevents  the  unnecessary  duplication  of  school  facilities  including 
the  building  of  school  houses. 

5.  It  relieves  the  county  superintendent  of  a  large  amount  of  clerical 
work  and  thus  economizes  energy  which  may  be  devoted  to  school  supervi- 
sion. 


119 

6.  It  prevents  the  wear  and  tear  of  petty  jealousies,  strife  and  contention 
betv%'een  districts.  There  would  be  no  more  disputes  about  district  bounda- 
ries. 

7.  It  would  allow  children  to  attend  the  school  most  convenient. 

8.  It  would  establish  a  uniform  rate  of  taxation  throughout  the  township, 
and  thus  facilitate  the  levying  and  collecting  of  taxes. 

9.  It  would  economize  effort  in  the  matter  of  securing  accurate  school 
statistics. 

10.  It  would  lessen  the  number  and  cost  of  elections. 

Under  the  jji-oposition  in  regard  to  a  more  equitable  distribution  of 
school  opportunities  the  following  arguments  may  be  grouped : 

1.  As  it  would  equalize  the  burden  of  taxation,  it  would  render  it  possi- 
ble to  distribute  school  funds  in  inverse  ratio  to  the  wealth  of  the  township, 
thus  giving  to  the  poorer  districts  the  wealth  to  equip  and  support' a  good 
school.  A  few  districts  in  a  township  nov,^  reap  practically  all  the  advan- 
tage of  the  railroad  taxes  levied  within  the  towns. 

2.  It  would  tend  to  equality  of  school  provisions  in  respect  to  school 
houses,  school  grounds,  apparatus,  length  of  school  terms  and  the  ability 
and  character  of  the  teachers. 

3.  Since  the  township  system  tends  to  the  employment  of  teachers  for 
longer  terms  it  will  restrict  in  a  considerable  degree  the  evils  that  flow  from 
frequent  changes  of  teachers. 

Closely  related  to  these  arguments  are  those  which  fall  under  the 
proposition  in  regard  to  the  educational  imnrovements  that  follow  the 
adoption  of  the  township  system.     These  are : 

1.  The  number  of  schools  being  reduced  and  the  number  of  pupils  being 
increased  under  the  township  system  there  would  be  better  classification, 
grading  and  teaching  and  an  increasing  interest  and  enthusiasm  on  the  part 
of  the  pupils. 

2.  The  township  system  is  the  only  means  by  which  we  can  hope  to  attain 
the  township  supervision  which  is  essential  to  the  highest  school  efficiency. 

3.  The  township  system  makes  possible  a  complete  system  of  township 
schools,  including  both  elementary  and  advanced. 

4.  In  all  probability  more  interested  school  officers  would  be  elected. 

It  is  perhaps  unnecessary  to  speak  at  length  of  the  grounds  upon 
which  these  various  arguments  in  favor  of  the  township  system  are 
based  or  to  present  the  facts  by  which  they  are  supported.  We  shall 
offer  a  few  remarks,  however,  bearing  upon  the  main  propositions. 

First,  then,  in  regard  to  the  su])crior  economy  of  the  township  sys- 
tem. By  economy  we  mean  not  only  a  saving  of  money  but  a  saving 
of  time  and  energy  as  well.  The  a  priori  arguments  on  this  proposition 
are  c6nclusive.  A  system  which  reduces  the  number  of  school  build- 
ings, school  officers  and  school  teachers,  to  the  actual  needs  of  the  town- 
ship— in  a  word,  which  systematizes  educational  effort — must  necessar- 
ily be  less  expensive  for  the  same  services  than  the  system  under  which 
expenses  and  effort  are  unnecessarily  duplicated.  The  economy  of 
relatively  large  units  of  organization  is  no  longer  a  matter  of  doubt. 
There  has  lieen  considerable  discussion  of  this  phase  of  the  question, 
however,  which  is  necessarily  complicated,  and  there  may  be  those 
who  will  deny  the  actual  superiority  of  the  township  system  so  far  as 
financial  economy  is  concerned.  Let  us  therefore  look  at  this  phase  of 
the  subject  a  little  more  closely. 

It  seems  probable  that  under  thetownshi'^  svstem  the  financial  man- 
agement of  the  schools  of  the  various  districts  would  be  more  open  to 


120 

public  observation  and  consequently  more  subject  to  public  criticism 
than  the  separate  management  of  boards  of  directors.  This  Avould  tend 
to  increase  the  efliciency  of  financial  management,  that  is,  make  it  less 
productive  of  waste.  Be  that  as  it  may,  however,  under  the  township 
system  schools  which  have  become  too  small  to  be  carried  on  efficiently 
would  be  closed.  The  expense  of  operating  these  schools,  of  employing 
teachers,  purchasing  supplies,  etc.,  would  be  saved.  The  expense  in- 
volved in  schooling  the  children  ekewhere  would  be  less  than  that  of 
maintaining  the  small  schools,  otherwise  there  would  not  be  a  financial 
incentive  to  close  them.  Here  at  least  is  a  distinct  saving.  Moreover 
supplies,  maps,  globes,  apparatus,  books,  incidentals,  fuel,  etc.,  would 
be  purchased  for  the  whole  township  at  once,  and  it  is  fair  to  assume 
that  they  would  be  obtained  at  a  lower  nrice.  This  is  another  saving. 
Again  ,there  would  be  fewer  elections  under  the  township  system  and 
every  election  eliminated  would  diminish  in  some  degree  the  school 
expenses  of  the  township.  It  is  clear,  then,  that  the  efficiency  of  the 
schools  remaining  the  same  the  township  system  must  necessarily  be 
somewhat  less  expensive  than  the  district  system. 

If,  then,  it  is  found  in  any  particular  case  that  the  schools  actually 
cost  more  under  the  township  system  than  they  did  under  the  district 
system,  it  must  be  due  to  the  fact  that  school  facilities  are  better, 
school  terms  are  longer,  and  school  teachers  receive  a  higher  wage.  It 
is  almost  impossible  to  institute  a  fair  comparison  for  the  reason  that 
under  the  township  system  invariably  the  efficiency  of  the  .schools  is 
increased.  "As  to  the  cost  of  the  two  systems,''  says  the  secretary  of 
the  Connecticut  State  Board  of  Education,  "it  must  always  be  said 
that  the  two  can  not  be  justly  compared  except  by  going  over  a  period 
of  years.  Wlien.  towns  enter  iipon  the  town  system  they  are  likely  to 
increase  expenses,  if  their  previous  expenses  have  been  stingy  and  in-' 
adequate.  On  the  contrary,  if  under  the  district  system  they  have  been 
liberal  the  economy  which  the  town  system  permits  will  enable  them 
to  reduce  their  expenses.  It  follows  then  that  you  would  have  to  know 
the  policy  under  the  district  system  before  you  could  judge  whether  the 
town  system  had  made  a  difference  in  the  case.  The  tendency  in  the' 
large  districts  in  this  State  is  to  become  practically  independent  and 
to  support  the  schools  liberally  under  the  district  system.  There  are 
agents  of  directness,  power  to  borrow  money,  etc.,  which  make  it  possible 
to  secure  appropriations  in  large  districts.  The  tendency  in  small  dis- 
tricts is  to  diminish  the  cost  because  there  are  few  children.  As  a  result, 
taking  the  average  district,  the  town  system  shows  in  this  State  very 
much  better  schools  so  far  as  instruction  is  concerned  as  well  as  more 
efficient  administration."  Similarly  Mr.  Frank  A.  Hill,  formerly  secre- 
tary of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Education,  said,  "I  do  not 
think  it  will  be  possible  without  a  great  deal  of  special  investigation  to 
furnish  figures  or  statistics  to  show  that  the  town  plan  is  either  cheaper 
or  more  expensive  than  the  district  plan.  The  expenditures  for  schools 
in  Massachusetts  have  been  gradually  ijicreasing,  because  of  better 
"buildings,  better  sanitation,  better  equipment,  better  teachers  and  better 
salaries.     I  have  a  strong  conviction,  however,  that  the  same  amount 


121 

of  money  ma}'  be  made  to  go  much  farther  under  town  management 
than  under  district  in  the  way  of  securing  greater  efficiency  in  the 
schools."  Maine  has  been  under  tlie  township  system  since  1893,  with 
ample  opportunity  for  observation.  W.  W.  Stetson,  formerly  State  super- 
intendent of  public  schools  in  that  state  has  arrived  at  the  following 
conclusion:  "There  can  be  no  question  but  that  for  an  equal  length  of 
terms  if  all  the  services  rendered  and  materials  furnished  are  paid  for 
the  township  system  is  much  more  economical  than  the  district  system."* 
This  is  a  conclusion  which,  as  we  believe,  is  incontrovertible. 

It  must  be  jDerfectly  obvious  that  there  can  be  no  fair  comparison  be- 
tween the  two  systems  financially  without  a  consideration  of  the  educa- 
tional facilities  provided  and  the  educational  results  achieved.  If  it 
were  determined,  for  instance,  that  the  schools  of  Massachusetts  or 
Indiana  actually  cost  more  per  capita  than  the  schools  of  Arkansas  or 
Mississippi  it  would  be  illogical  to  conclude  that  the  school  systems 
of  the  latter  states  are  more  economical  than  those  of  the  former. 
Economy  is  not  determined  by  a  comparison  of  amounts  actually  spent, 
but  by  a  comparison  of  the  results  actually  achieved  by  the  same  amount 
of  expenditures.  The  financial  phase  of  this  question  is,  therefore, 
always  more  or  less  involved.  Difl:erences  in  administrative  efficiency 
and  in  educational  results  must  always  be  taken  into  consideration. 
Moreover,  the  equalization  of  the  tax  rate  in  a  township,  which  would 
obtain  under  the  township  system,  must  necessarily  raise  the  rate  in 
some  districts  and  lower  it  in  others.  A  district  which  pays  little  or 
nothing  for  schools  could  hardly  expect  any  system  of  organization 
adopted  with  the  expectation  of  increasing  the  efficiency  of  the  "schools 
of  the  State  to  diminish  its  own  rate  of  taxation.  No  sort  of  juggling 
of  tax  rates,  however,  can  obscure  these  facts,  that  the  township  system, 
the  efficiency  of  the  schools  remaining  the  same,  is  less  expensive  than 
the  district  system,  and  that  it  is,  from  the  viewpoint  of  the  welfare 
of  the  State  and  the  children  of  the  State,  far  superior  to  the  district 
svstem.  The  financial  phase  of  this  question  then,  while  it  is  important, 
is  not  the  most  important  phase  of  it.  What  are  the  relative  educational 
effects  produced  by  the  two  systems?  This  is  the  important  question. 
The  great  superiority  of  the  township  system  rests  upon  educational 
grounds  rather  than  upon  financial  grounds. 

As  to  the  superior  economy  of  energy  under  the  township  system  it 
is  only  necessary  to  recall  the  enormous  number  of  men  required  to 
control  and  manage  the  schools  of  a  state  under  the  district  system. 
In  Ohio,  for  instance,  previous  to  the  adoption  of  the  township  system 
there  were  about  15,000  teachers  employed  to  teach  the  common  schools 
of  the  State  at  the  same  time  more  than  35,000  school  directors  and 
\  members  of  hoards  of  education  who  were  engaged  in  the  administra- 
tion of  the  schools.  In  Missouri  there  are  10,365  rural  school  teachers 
and  about  28,000  school  directors.  In  Illinois  today  there  are  onlv 
28,083  teacliers  while  there  are  about  45,000  school  officers.  There  are 
1,882  townships,  and  11,797  districts.    Under  the  township  system.  1,882 


•The  opinions  above  quoted  may  be  found  In  the  Report  of  the  National  Educa- 
tional Association  for  1897.  pp.  509-10. 


122 

township  boards  Mould  perform  the  duties  now  assigned  to  11,797 
boards  of  directors.  This  would  certainly  be  an  economy  of  time  and 
energy. 

/There  is  anotlier  respect,  previously  referred  to  but  worthy  of  still 
further  consideration,  in  which  the  economy  of  township  organization 
would  early  manifest  itself,  and  that  is  in  the  closing  of  small  and  poorly 
equipped  schools.  In  Illinois  there  are  thirty-two  districts  which  have 
no  schools  at  all.  There  are  106  schools  with  fewer  than  five  pupils, 
589  with  fewer  than  ten  and  1,460  with  fewer  than  fifteen.  In  one 
district  at  least  in  one  of  the  counties  of  the  State  there  is  not  a  single 
child  of  school  age,  but  of  course  there  is  no  school  in  that  district.  In 
a  district  in  another  county  there  is  but  one  child  of  school  age.  There 
is  probably,  however,  in  each  district  a  school  house.  A  superintendent 
of  Illinois  saj's  that  in  visiting  four  schools  in  succession  in  one  day 
he  found  that  the  total  enrollment  of  the  four  was  only  thirteen.  It 
must  be  perfectly  obvious  that  to  operate  schools  of  this  character  is 
a  waste  of  public  funds.  Such  schools  may  be  found,  however,  in  every 
state  organized  under  the  district  system.  In  Wisconsin  in  1906  thirty- 
two  schools  enrolled  less  than  five  pupils,  two  hundred  and  thirty- 
eight  more  than  ten  and  less  than  sixteen.  In  Missouri  in  1907  there 
were  five  hundred  and  fifty-five  districts  enumerating  less  than  twenty 
pupils.  In  Arkansas  in  1906  four  hundred  and  sixty-two  schools  en- 
rolled less  than  eleven  pupils.  In  Wisconsin  two  hundred  and  seventy 
enrolled  less  than  that  number.  In  Kansas  seventy-eight  schools  have 
an  enrollment  of  five  or  less,  four  hundred  and  seventy-four  an  en- 
rollment between  five  and  ten,  and  one  thousand  and  forty-nine  between 
ten  and  fifteen.  In  Michigan  in  1902  fifty-one  schools  of  the  State 
having  only  two  pupils  or  fewer  had  no  schools  at  all.  Eighty-three 
schools  of  the  southern  peninsula  had  five  pupils  or  fewer  and  an  aver- 
age attendance  of  three,  and  one  thousand  and  four  schools  had  fifteen 
pupils  or  fewer  with  an  average  attendance  of  eight.  The  cost  per 
pupil  of  maintaining  these  small  schools  was  on  the  average  $7.05  or 
$70.50  for  a  term  of  ten  months,  while  the  average  cost  per  pupil  in 
the  city  schools  of  Michigan  was  never  more  than  $19.40  per  year  of 
ten  months,  including  the  high  schools.  The  average  cost  was,  of  course, 
much  less.  Under  the  township  system  the  schools  which  have  be- 
come so  small  that  it  is  impossible  to  carry  them  on  efficiently  would 
be  closed.  In  Indiana  the  law  compels  the  closing  of  all  schools  with 
fewer  than  twelve  pupils  and  permits  the  closing  of  all  with  fewer 
than  fifteen  pupils.  Under  such  a  law  in  Illinois  six  hundred  and 
ninety-five  schools  would  have  to  be  closed  and  two  thousand  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty-five  might, be  closed.  The  saving  that  would  follow  is 
obvious. 

It  is  not  to  be  understood,  however,  that  the  township  system  of 
itself  necessitates  the  closing  of  any  schools  whatever.  The  township 
system  should  not  be  identified  with  the  consolidation  of  schools.  The 
relation  between  the  two  extends  no  farther  than  this,  that  the  town- 
ship system  facilitates  the  consolidation  of  schools  whenever  it  be- 
comes desirable.    The  econnmv  of  school  consolidation  is  not  here  under 


123 

discussion.  It  may  be  said  in  ])assing,  however,  that  if,  as  is  claimed, 
consolidation  is  more  economical  than  the  present  plan,  it  goes  to  show 
that  the  township  system  which  permits  consolidation,  though  it  does 
not  require  it,  is  all  the  more  superior  so  far  as  economy  is  concerned. 

So  much  for  economy.  Xow  a  few  words  in  regard  to  the  tendency 
of  the  township  system  to  facilitate  the  establishment  of  high  schools  in 
townships  in  which  such  schools  are  desired  by  the  people  and  to  pro- 
mote a  more  effective  supervision  of  the  rural  schools.  As  to  the  high 
schools,  the  commissioner  of  Ehode  Island,  prior  to  the  abolishment 
of  district  schools  in  that  state,  said  that  "As  fast  as  our  towns  have 
abolished  the  district  system  by  their  own  vote,  they  at  once  began  to 
consider  the  matter  of  a  high  school.  So  long  as  the  districts  exists  we 
shall  not  have  high  schools;  but  if  we  can  get  rid  of  the  districts,  we 
shall  ultimately  be  able  to  provide  school  facilities  for  the  greater  part, 
if  not  for  all,  of  the  children  of  the  state."  This  would  seem  to  have 
been  the  case  in  the  other  states  that  have  adopted  the  townshp  system. 
In  Pennsylvania,  for  instance,  there  are  over  two  hundred  township 
high  schools.  In  Illinois  there  are  only  about  fifty.*  In  Ohio  in  1905 
there  were  893  high  schools,  277  of  which  were  of  the  first  grade,  that 
is,  covering  a  period  of  not  less  than  four  years  of  not  less  than  thirty- 
two  weeks  each  in  which  not  less  than  sixteen  courses  are  required 
for  graduation.  In  Massachusetts  every  town  containing  five  hundred 
families  is  required  by  law  to  maintain  a  high  school.  Other  towns 
may  maintain  such  schools  and  on  certain  conditions  receive  aid  from 
the  state  to  the  amount  of  $300.  Tliirty-seven  towns  received  such 
aid  in  1906.  If  a  town  is  not  required  by  law  to  maintain  a  high  school 
it  must  make  provision  for  high  school  instruction  in  an  adjoining 
town.  Under  certain  conditions  the  t-own  is  reimbursed  by  the  state, 
for  the  whole  or  for  half  the  cost  of  such  instruction.  One  hundred 
towns  sending  1,077  pupils  were  reimbursed  wholly  or  in  part  by  the 
state  last  year  under  the  provisions  of  this  law.  Only  thirteen  towns 
in  Massachusetts  have  no  pupils  receiving  high  school  instruction  and 
these  towns  contain  only  789  children  between  the  ages  of  five  and  fif- 
teen. It  is  significant  that  a  good  high  school  law  and  a  large  number 
of  township  high  schools  are  invariably  found  in  the  states  under  town- 
ship organization.  Under  such  organization  the  high  school  is  naturally 
and  necessarily  articulated  with  the  rural  schools.  It  is  a  part  of  the 
system.  The  township  high  school  so  articulated  will  probably  save 
more  to  the  farmers  of  a  township  in  tuition,  board,  clothing  and  other 
expenses  involved  in  sending  their  children  away  to  school,  than  they 
ordinarily  pay  in  taxes. 

As  to  township  supervision,  ;Mr.  Balliet  has  already  been  quoted  to 
the  effect  that  the  Massachusetts  system  is  probably  the  best  in  the 
country.  That  system  is  briefly  as  follows:  The  school  committee  of 
a  city  or  town  may  employ  at  its  own  expense  a  superintendent  of  schools 
who,  under  the  direction  and  control  of  the  committee,  shall  have  the 
care  and  supervision  of  the  public  schools.     The  compensation  of  such 

•There  are,  of  course,  in  Illinois  alioiit  460  hiRh  schools,  Including  all  three-year 
high  schools.  The  number  of  townsliip  hish  .schools  in  Pennsylvania  given  above 
does  not  include  the  borough  and  city  high  schools. 


124 

superintcudcut  is  determined  b}'  the  school  committee.  Two  or  more 
towns  b}'  vote  of  each  may  form  a  district  for  the  purpose  of  emplo3-ing 
a  superintendent.  Suitable  provisions  are  made  for  the  union  of  the 
smaller  towns  into  a  supervision  district  without  a  vote  of  the  people. 
In  the  formation  of  such  unions  the  various  school  committees  act  as 
a  joint  committee  and  a  union  once  made  can  be  dissolved  only  after 
three  years  from  its  formation  by  a  vote  of  a  majority  of  the  towns  con- 
stituting the  union.  Towns  thus  uniting  receive  state  aid  not  only  in 
the  payment  of  the  superintendent  but  also  of  teachers  employed  in 
the  public  schools.  According  to  the  report  of  the  secretary  of  the 
Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Education  only  two  towns  in  all  Massachu- 
setts in  1906  disregarded  the  requirement  of  the  law  providing  for  the 
employment  of  a  school  superintendent. 

Other  states  have  followed  the  example  of  Massachusetts  with  re- 
spect to  township  supervision.  In  Connecticut,  for  instance,  two  or 
more  towns  together  employing  not  less  than  twenty-five  nor  more  than 
fifty  teachers  may  unite  by  vote  of  the  town  school  committee,  (or 
school  visitors  or  board  of  education  as  the  case  may  be)  for  the  pur- 
pose of  employing  a  superintendent  of  schools,  and  towns  so  united 
shall  form  a  supervision  district.  The  state  pays  half  the  salary  of  su- 
perintendents so  employed,  providing  such  salary  does  not  exceed  $1,- 
600.00  per  year.  The  town  school  committee  or  board  of  visitors  or 
board  of  education  of  any  town  employing  not  more  than  ten  teachers 
may  petition  the  state  board  of  education,  or  by  vote  request'  it,  to  ap- 
point an  agent  to  discharge  the  duties  of  superintendent.  The  superin- 
tendent so  appointed  is  paid  one-fourth  of  his  salary  by  the  town  and 
three-fourths  by  the  state.  Both  in  Massachusetts  and  in  Connecticut 
special  qualifications  are  required  for  the  office  of  superintendent.  In 
Connecticut  no  one  is  eligible  to  the  office  of  town  superintendent  who 
has  not  had  at  least  five  years'  successful  experience  as  a  teacher  or 
superintendent  or  who  does  not  hold  a  certificate  of  approval  granted 
by  the  state  board  .of  education. 

A  high  school  law  similar  to  that  of  Connecticut  was  enacted  in  I'^ew 
Hampshire  in  1899.  ''This  law,"  says  the  superintendent  of  New 
Hampshire,  "is  permissive  and  not  mandatory  in  its  nature.  It  places 
upon  the  principle  of  expert  supervision  the  stamp  of  the  state's  ap- 
proval, backs  up  that  aproval  by  meeting  the  towns  half  way  in  the 
matter  of  expense,  and  then  leaves  the  adoption  of  the  principle  to 
be  decided  by  the  wishes  of  each  local  district."*  In  Maine  the  school 
committee  of  two  or  more  towns  having  under  their  care  and  custody 
an  aggregate  of  not  less  than  twenty  nor  more  than  fifty  schools  may 
unite  in  the  employment  of  a  superintendent  when  authorized  by  a  vote 
of  the  towns. 

In  Pennsylvania  in  a  township  with  4,000  or  more  inhabitants  the 
board  may  appoint  a  supervising  principal  who  shall  have  general  su- 
pervision of  the  schools  of  the  township.  Among  the  weak  points  in  the 
Indiana  system  is  the  absence  of  township  supervision.  If  the  predic- 
tion that  the  township  system  is  to  become  general  is  fulfilled,  it  is 


•New  Hampshire  School  report,  1905-6,  p.  177. 


15o 

inevitable  that  the  principle  of  township  supervision  will  everywhere 
prevail.  If  expert  supervision  is  essential  to  city  schools  it  is  obvious 
that  it  can  be  no  less  essential  to  the  efficiency  of  rural  schools.  Once 
adopted  in  a  state  it  will  not  be  long  in  extending  itself  into  every 
portion  of  it.  Within  fourteen  years  after  the  township  supervision  was 
adopted  in  Massachusetts  ninety-four  per  cent  of  all  the  teachers  and 
ninety-six  per  cent  of  all  children  of  the  state  were  under  the  super- 
vision of  an  educational  expert.  The  question  of  the  value  of  such  super- 
vision is  not  an  open  one  in  Massachusetts.  Legislation  in  regard  to 
expert  supervision  has  consequently  passed  the  permissive  state,  and 
such  supervision  since  1902  has  been  compulsory  upon  all  towns  and 
cities.  The  promotion  of  township  high  schools  and  the  encourage- 
ment of  township  school  supervision  are,  then,  the  almost  invariable 
accompaniments  of  the  township  system  of  organization.  This  alone 
places  upon  it  the  stamp  of  superiority. 

Objections. 

The  objections  most  frequently  urged  against  towmship  organization 
are  the  following:  Tlie  township  system  would  take  the  control  of  the 
school  out  of  the  hands  of  the  people,  a  township  board  would  not  man- 
ifest the  same  interest  in  the  district  school  as  a  board  elected  by  the 
voters  of  the  district  only;  the  township  unit  means  higher  taxes;  the 
township  system  means  the  closing  of  schools,  the  transportation  of 
pupils  and  consequently  hard  roads.  Let  us  consider  these  objections, 
taking  them  up  in  the  inverse  order  of  that  in  which  they  have  just 
been  presented. 

The  objection  that  the  township  system  of  school  organization  in- 
volves the  question  of  taxation  for  hard  roads  is  based  on  a  misconcep- 
tion of  what  the  township  system  really  is.  The  misconception  arises 
from  the  supposition  that  the  towmship  system  of  school  organization 
necessarily  involves  the  consolidation  of  schools  and  the  transportation 
of  pui)ils.  This  is  a  mistake,  the  township  svstem  does  not  mean  the 
consolidation  of  schools,  but  the  unification  of  school  management.  We 
could  have  township  organization  without  closing  a  single  school.  It 
is  probable,  however,  that  under  the  township  system  the  people  of  some 
townships  would  vote  now  and  then  to  close  a  school  which  had  become 
inefficient.  Certainly  they  ought  to  do  so  in  the  interest  of  the  children 
of  such  schools.  But  if  so,  it  would  be  of  their  own  action  and  entirely 
incidental  to  township  organization.  The  commission  has  expressed  the 
o])inion  that  schools  containing  an  enrollment  of  less  than  ten  pupils 
should  be  closed  and  this  opinion  is  supported  by  the  experience  and  prac- 
tice of  other  states.  But,  as  has  been  seen,  the  fonn  of  ortranization  pro- 
)iosed  by  the  commission  does  not  include  even  that  provision.  The  ob- 
jection, thouch  invalid,  is  one  which  naturallv  arises,  and  which  has 
iieen  met  within  every  attempt  to  introduce  the  township  system.  The 
present  superintendent  of  schools  of  Vermont,  in  speaking  on  this  sam'e 
point,  savs  '"the  present  law  was  born  amid  much  annreliension  and  mis- 
appre]ien:^ion.     The   fear  was   that   a   reckless  consolidation   of  scliools 


12  G 

would  ensue.  This-  is  antagonistic  to  its  spirit.  It  means  consolidation 
of  management;  not  schools,  except  in  cases  where  the  larger  profit 
to  pupils  unquestionably  justifies  the  action.''* 

"Another  misapprehension,"  said  he  "was  largely  increased  expense." 

This  brings  us  to  the  objection  that  the  township  system  involves  in- 
creased taxation.  The  answer  which  comes  from  all  the  states  which 
have  adopted  it  is  that  it  does  not.  In  Vermont,  for  instance,  in  the 
year  following  the  adoption  of  the  town  system  the  children  of  the 
state  received  6411.2  additional  Aveeks  of  schoolino-,  and  the  average  cost 
per  week  was  reduced  from  $11.69  to  $10.90. 

It  is  easy  to  show  that  if  the  school  facilities  remain  the  same  the 
cost  of  operating  the  schools  under  the  township  system  could  not  be 
greater  than  under  the  district  system.  If,  for  instance,  a  township 
has  ten  schools,  employs  ten  teachers,  and  has  ten  boards  of  school  direc- 
tors, necessitating  ten  elections  annually,  and  purchases  its  supplies 
through  ten  dift'erent  channels,  it  is  contrary  to  reason  to  sup- 
pose that  its  expenses  would  not  be  diminished  by  uniting  the  manage- 
ment of  its  schools  under  one  board  of  directors  requiring  but  one  an- 
nual election  and  by  purchasing  its  supplies  in  large  quantities  through 
one  channel.  But  it  is  not  supposed  that  the  school  facilities  would 
long  remain  the  same.  One  of  the  chief  merits  of  the  township  system 
is  that  under  it  they  increase.  Now,  it  is  nossible,  even  probable,  that 
in  time  this  increase  would  raise  the  expenditure  of  the  township  to 
the  amount  required  under  the  district  system,  or  beyond  it.  Such  in- 
crease, however,  would  depend  chiefly  upon  the  growth  of  interest  and 
pride  which  the  people  of  the  township  would  manifest  in  their  schools, 
and  the  extent  of  these  of  course,  can  not  be  accurately  predicted.  ■  It  is, 
therefore,  al)solutely  impossible  for  anvone  to  say  whether  in  a  year,  two 
years,  or  at  any  given  time  in  the  future  the  tax  rate  under  the  town- 
ship system  would  be  above  or  below  the  level  of  taxation  under  the 
district  system.  All  that  can  be  positively  asserted  is  that  at  the  same 
rates  of  taxation  the  township  system  will  provide  better  school  facili- 
ties than  the  district  system.  This  may  he  shown  both  by  calculation  and 
by  the  evidence  from  other  states  which  have  adopted  the  township  sys- 
tem, and  this  alone  is  sufficient  to  justify  the  commission's  recommend- 
ation. 

Not  only  does  the  township  system  secure  better  schools  than  the  dis- 
trict system,  but  it  makes  possible  a  development  of  schools  which  could 
never  take  place  under  the  district  system.  The  prime  object  of  a  sys- 
tem of  school  organization  with  respect  to  taxes  is  not  the  reduction  of 
taxation,  but  the  more  economical  use  of  the  taxes  raised  for  school  pur- 
poses, and  this  is  attained  l)y  the  townsliip  system.  It  means  an  equal 
distribution  of  the  burden  of  taxation  throughout  tlie  territorv  adopting 
the  system,  and  consequently  the  taxes  of  some  persons  would  be  in- 
creased under  it  and  those  of  others  diminished.  It  means  also  an 
equal  distribution,  of  taxes  levied  and  consequently  and  equal  distribu- 
tion of  school  privileges.  It  should,  therefore,  appeal  particularly  to 
the  rural  population  of  the  State,  for  it  is  obvious  on  the  most  casual 


♦Vermont   School   Report,    1893-4,   p.  .69. 


127 

consideration  that  the  children  in  towns  and  cities  enjoy  superior  educa- 
tional opportunities  to  the  children  of  those  who  live  in  the  country. 
The  country  people  of  the  State  have  more  to  gain  from  the  township 
system  than  any  other  class  of  citizens. 

In  regard  to  the  third  objection,  namely,  that  a  township  board  of 
school  directors  would  be  less  interested  in  the  district  school  than  a 
local  board  of  directors,  it  seems  plausible  enough,  and  yet  a  careful 
consideration  will  show  that  it  is  almost  wholly  without  foundation. 
It  assumes  what  is  not  true,  and  that  is  that  interest  in  the  work  of  i. 
district  school  depends  upon  one's  geographical  relation  to  it.  It  is  not 
even  true  that  a  man  who  sends  children  to  a  school  has  necessarily  a 
greater  interest  in  that  school  than  one  who  does  not.  Interest  in  a  par- 
ticular school  depends  upon  an  interest  in  schools  generally,  and  such 
interest  is  due  to  one's  natural  bent  or  is  called  forth  by  one's  profes- 
sional duties.  It  is  often  times  a  peculiar  personal  attribute,  and  is 
■found  highly  developed  now  and  then  in  men  and  women  who  are  child- 
less. It  is  an  interest,  too,  which  is  developed  by  responsibility.  The 
objection  assumes  that  a  school  director  is  more  deeply  interested  in  his 
school  and  will  look  more  carefullv  after  its  welfare  than,  for  instance, 
the  county  superintendent  of  schools.  Everybody  knows  that  this  is  not 
the  case.  The  county  superintendent,  because  of  his  professional  re- 
lationship to  the  school  work  in  general,  is,  as  a  rule,  more  deeply  in- 
terested in  all  ouestions  affecting  the  progress  of  the  district  schools  of 
his  county  than  the  directors  themselves.  Everyljody  knows  that  this  is 
the  case.  So  it  is  to  be  expected  that  a  township  board  of  directors,  be- 
cause of  tiicir  increased  responsibility  and  wider  professional  duties, 
w^ould  manifest  greater  interest  in  individual  schools  than  is  found 
among  boards  of  school  directors  as  they  are  now  constituted.  This  has 
been  proven  in  those  states  which  have  adonted  the  township  system. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  increased  responsibility  of  the  school  directors 
under  the  township  plan  would  lead  the  people  themselves  to  be  more 
particular  with  respect  to  the  professional  interest  and  intelligence  of  the 
men  selected  for  that  position.  Thus  there  would  be  a  double  tendency 
under  the  township  system  towards  increasing  the  interest  and  ethciency 
of  school  directors.  It  should  be  remembered,  too,  that  interest  in  a 
school  is  not  sufficient.  It  must  be  an  intelligent  interest.  Interest  in 
a  school  sometimes  amounts  to  nothing  more  than  interference  with 
the  school.  The  experience  of  other  states  has  shown  that  under  the 
township  system  more  efficient  school  ofhcers  are  secured.  People  who 
are  most  deeply  and  intelligently  interested  in  an  institution  do  not  in- 
sist on  managing  it  themselves,  but  are  anxious  to  eiitrust  its  manage- 
ment to  the  most  efficient  officers  that  can  be  selected.  Thus  this  objec- 
tion, which  is  one  of  the  first  to  occur  to  those  who  begin  to  think  about 
the  two  systems  of  school  organization,  completely  breaks  down. 

Finally,  we  have  the  objection  that  the  township  system  takes  the  con- 
trol of  the  schools  out  of  the  hands  of  the  people. 

This  objection  betravs  an  entire  misconception  of  the  nature  of  popu- 
lar government  and  also  of  what  the  township  system  really  is.  The 
township  system  merely  proposes  to  reduce  the  nuuil)er  of  representatives 


128 

elected  to  carry  out  the  popular  will.  It  would  increase  the  territorial 
area  from  which  these  representatives  are  chosen.  But  since  such  repre- 
sentatives would  still  be  elected  by  the  people  the  control  of  the  schools 
would  be  left  in  the  hands  of  the  people.  It  is  surely  a  fact  that  local 
government  does  not  depend  upon  the  area  of  the  territorial  unit  from 
which  representatives  are  chosen.  If  under  our  present  system  two  dis- 
tricts are  consolidated,  would  that  affect  the  participation  of  the  people 
in  the  school  affairs  6i  those  districts?  .  Obviously  not.  If  it  did,  it 
might  be  shown  by  the  same  reasoning  that  to  divide  a  district  would 
make  the  government  still  more  democratic,  which  is  absurd.  School 
government,  like  other  forms  of  government,  must  necessarily  be  repre- 
sentative, and  its  democratic  nature  is  not  effected  in  the  least  by  making 
the  township  the  unit  instead  of  the  district.  Does  the  fact  that  the  town 
is  the  unit  in  the  making  of  roads,  the  building  of  bridges,  the  care  of 
the  poor,  the  levying  and  collecting  of  taxes,  for  town  purposes,  etc., 
indicate  that  in  these  matters  the  people  have  surrendered  any  of  their 
authority?  Certainly  not,  and  so  if  the  people  should  decide  to  make 
the  township  instead  of  the  district  the  unit  of  school  organization  and 
administration  and  elect  fewer  representatives  to  look  after  their  in- 
terests, they  would  merelv  adopt  a  more  efficient  system  for  the  exercise 
of  a  particular  governmental  function  and  would  surrender  not  one  iota 
of  the  power  now  lodged  in  them.  As  another  has  said,  "the  courts  pre- 
vent ^vice  and  immorality'  by  stimulating  fear  through  punishment. 
The  schools  prevent  'vice  and  immorality'  by  developing  in  the  child 
moral  power.  It  is  a  strange  absurdity,  an  amazing  inconsistency,  to 
hold  that  the  criminal  law  must  be  administered  by  town  and  State 
officers,  but  that  the  laws  relating  to  the  schools  and  education  must  be 
administered  by  officers  chosen  by  small  districts  or  divisions  of  towns. 
The  delegation  of  power  over  the  schools  to  small  localities  or  neighbor- 
hoods in  towns,  which  the  founders  of  the  state  intended  should  be 
vested  in  and  exercised  by  the  towns,  under  the  general  control  of  the 
State  has  caused,  and  in  one  way  and  another  at  this  time,  is  causing, 
nearly  all  the  trouble  in  our  schools.  This  delegation  of  power  to  edu- 
cate to  inefficient  agents,  (a)  has  produced  the  small  school;  (b)  it  has 
produced  inequality  of  taxation;  (c)  it  has  produced  inequality  of  school 
privileges.  We  must  have  a  permanent  and  progressive  school  system. 
We  never  shall  have  one  until  it  is  placed  on  a  sound  financial  basis. 
There  can  be  no  sound  financial  basis  without  equal  taxation  for  the 
support  of  the  common  schools."* 

Another  illustration  may  hel^  to  show  how  thoroughly  unfounded  is 
the  claim  that  the  district  system  is  essential  to  popular  control  of  the 
schools.  East  St.  Louis,  for  instance,  has  twenty-two  schools,  Quincy 
fifteen  and  Rockford,  Peoria  and  Danville  nineteen  each.  Each  of  these 
cities  is  a  single  district.  The  schools  in  each  are  managed  by  a  single 
board  of  education.  Now  if  the  district  system  alone  is  democratic  the 
people  of  these  cities  have  been  deprived  of  the  rights  which  naturally 
belong  to  them  as  members  of  a  democratic  community.  Each  ward 
should  be  a  separate  district  with  its  own  board  of  directors.     They 

♦Edwin  F.  Palmer,  Vermont  School  Report,  1893-4,  pp.  68-9. 


129 

bliould,  tlie'i'cl'orc,  divide  those  cities  into  as  many  districts  as  there  are 
schools,  and  the  people  in  the  small  division  containing;  a  school  should 
elect  their  own  directors.  Why  don't  they  do  it?  Is  it  not  because  they 
know  that  they  have  been  deprived  of  their  rights,  but  that  in  making  the 
entire  city  a  single  district  with  a  single  board  of  directors  they  have 
merely  adopted  a  system  of  school  organization  far  more  efficient  than  a 
small  district  system  could  possibly  be? 

Communications  bearing  on  the  subject  of  school  organization  have 
been  received  by  the  commission  from  almost  all  the  state  superinten- 
dents of  the  country  and  from  other  school  officials  well  qualified  to  ex- 
press an  opinion.  Some  of  these  communications  express  views  favor- 
able to  the  county  system.  Only  one  of  them  contains  anything  favorable 
to  the  district  as  the  unit  of  organization.  That  one  is  from  the  as- 
sistant superintendent  of  Washington,  who  says  that  since  Washington 
"is  a  3^oung  state,  and  from  the  nature  of  the  topography  of  the  country 
it  has  been  settled  in  spots,"  the  district  system  is  there  practically  a 
necessity.  He  says,  however,  that  ho  "can  readily  see  that  the  town- 
ship system  might  have  much  merit  in  a  thickly  populated  state  like 
Illinois."  The  following  are  extracts  from  some  of  the  letters  received, 
and  are  quoted  here  to  enforce  still  more  strongly  the  fact  that  the 
township  system  is  not  a  dream  but  a  practicable  system  of  school  or- 
ganization and  administration  which  has  been  tested  by  long  experience 
and  demonstrated  to  the  satisfaction  of  school  men  generally  that  it  is 
superior  in  every  way  to  the  district  system. 

Opinions  of  Experts  in  School  Administration. 

E.  T.  Fairchild.  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  Kansas. — "The 
township  as  the  unit  of  school  organization  is  the  most  efficient  and  econom- 
ical plan  for  the  administration  of  school  affairs.  Kansas  has  thirteen 
thousand  public  school  teachers  and  an  army  of  twenty-eight  thousand  offi- 
cers to  direct  and  manage  these  teachers — an  anomalous  condition,  and  one 
chat  means  a  great  waste  of  energy  and  a  decided  lack  of  unilication  and  co- 
ordination in  educational  matters.  A  large  unit  means  a  more  economical 
and  business  like  administration.  It  is  the  small  district  and  the  varying 
conception  of  school  work  that  are  responsible  for  most  of  the  weakness  of 
our  system.  The  district  plan  is  apparently  the  last  remnant  of  the  old  time 
conception  of  the  widest  distribution  of  business  and  is  at  war  with  every 
modern  thought  of  classification  and  organization." 

J.  H.  Ackerma7i,  Superintendent  of  Public  I71  struct  ion.  Oregon. — In  my 
opinion,  and  I  find  it  to  be  the  opinion  of  the  leading  educators  of  this  State 
the  small  unit,  such  as  we  have  in  the  district  unit,  is  not  producing  the  re- 
sults that  could  be  obtained  by  means  of  a  larger  unit.  Personally  I  am 
strongly  in  favor  of  the  county  unit.  My  next  choice  would  be  the  township 
unit.  I  am  firmly  of  the  opinion  that  with  a  township  or  county  unit  the  net 
results  of  our  educational  effort  v/ould  be  increased  fifty  per  cent.  It  is  not 
what  we  put  into  a  system,  but  what  comes  out  of  it.  that  should  count,  and 
hence,  as  I  have  before  indicated,  the  greatest  question  before  the  American 
people  is  that  of  a  changed  unit  of  administration.  We  are  using  a  ifiethod 
that  is  more  than  one  hundred  years  old,  without  any  change,  and  for  that 
reason  the  country  schools  have  not  kept  pace  with  the  city  schools.  The 
city  schools  have  forged  ahead  because  they  have  used  a  larger  unit  for  edu- 
cational purposes." 

-i>  E  C 


130 

W.  L.  Stockicell.  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  North  Dakota. — ■ 
"I  am  most  emphatically  in  favor  of  the  township  system.  It  makes  for 
efficiency  in  education  which  assists  materially  in  consolidation.  It  brings 
upon  the  district  school  board  men  of  better  qualifications;  it  makes  a  more 
satisfactory  school,  and  in  this  State  materially  reduces  the  cost  of  school 
management.  I  think  the  objection  that  it  would  mean  increased  taxation 
is  not  sound  unless  indirectly  better  schools  mean  increased  taxation.  We 
have  45  counties  in  our  State,  40  of  which  have  the  tov%'nship  system  and 
five  of  w^hich  have  the  district  system,  and  I  am  sure  that  it  would  be  greatly 
to  the  advantage  of  those  five  counties,  educationally,  if  they  could  make  the 
change." 

H.  A.  Ustrud,  Superintendent  of  Puhlic  Instruction,  South  Dakota. — "In 
this  State  we  have  both  the  township  organization  and  the  single  district 
organization.  The  township  organization  lends  aid  to  centralization  of 
schools  and  there  is  a  liklihood  of  having  better  school  officers  in  the  town- 
ship system  than  in  the  single  district  system.  Local  disturbances  in  the 
district  seem  to  be  more  satisfactorily  handled  by  a  township  school  board 
who  are  unlikely  to  be  parties  to  other  factional  affairs  so  frequent  in  the 
single  school  district." 

C.  G.  Schultz,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Minnesota. — "I  am 
very  certain  your  educational  commission  has  acted  wisely  and  in  the  inter- 
est of  efficient  and  progressive  school  administration,  in  recommending  a 
change  from  the  district  to  the  township  unit  of  organization.  One  of  the 
things  v^'hich  most  hampers  the  rural  schools  in  Minnesota  is  the  small 
school  district." 

R.  B.  Cousins,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Texas. — "The  change 
proposed  from  your  district  system  to  the  township  system  is  unquestion- 
ably a  step  in  the  direction  of  the  permanent  improvement  of  the  ot-^-aniza- 
tion  of  your  schools.  Any  territorial  unit  that  is  smaller  than  the-  township 
is  in  almost  every  instance  too  weak  to  provide  adequate  school  facilities  for 
the  children.  Larger  units  are,  as  a  rule,  stronger  units,  because  of  the  in- 
creased amount  of  taxable  property  upon  which  they  rest  and  the  greater 
degree  of  intelligence  possible  in  the  management  of  the  schools." 

Nathan  C.  Schaeffer,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  Pennsylvania. 
— "Pennsylvania  has  always  had  the  township  system  of  managing  schools. 
From  the  start  the  schools  have  been  in  charge  of  six  directors.  In  our 
opinion  this  results  in  economy.  My  notion  is  that  a  county  system  is  more 
economical  even  than  a  township  system.  The  superintendent  of  one  coun- 
ty claims  that  if  he  could  locate  the  school  houses,  he  could  accommodate  all 
the  children  as  well  as  they  are  now  accommodated  and  save  the  salaries  of 
fifty  teachers." 

C  /.  Baxter.  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  New  Jersey. — "We  find 
that  the  township  system  v/orks  admirably  in  New  Jersey.  It  has  clearly 
demonstrated  the  wisdom  of  those  who  were  its  advocates  and  has  prepared 
the  way  for  other  reforms.  We  have  been  enabled  to  greatly  strengthen 
our  schools  in  the  matter  of  supervision  by  the  appointment  of  township 
supervising  principals,  and  to  make  a  much  closer  approach  to  providing 
'equality  of  opportunity'  for  the  children  of  the  state." 

Mason  S.  Stone.  Superintendent  of  Education.  Vermont. — "By  an  Act 
passed  at  the  biennial  session  of  the  General  Assembly  of  Vermont  in  1892, 
the  educational  system  of  the  State  was  changed  from  the  district  system 
to  the  town  system.  Prior  to  that  Act,  the  towns  in  their  annual  town  meet- 
ings, voted  on  the  adoption  of  the  town  system.  Each  year  about  eighty  per 
cent  of  the  voters  had  voted  against  it  and  at  the  time  the  law  was  made 
compulsory  by  statutory  enactment  there  were  only  twelve  towns  in  the 
State  which  had  voluntarily  adopted  the  town  system.  At  the  biennial 
term  of  1894,  an  attempt  was  made  in  the  General  Assembly,  to  revert  to  the 
district  system,  but  the  bill  failed  of  passage.  Since  then  no  attempt  has 
been  made  to  readopt  the  previous  system,  and,  for  the  past  ten  years  I 
have  known  of  no  attempt  to  return  to  the  previous  condition  of  adminis- 
tration.    The  principle  involved  is  that  education  is  a  common  good;   there- 


131 

fore  equal  advantages  should  be  furnished  all,  and  the  expense  of  mainte- 
nance should  also  be  equal.  As  a  result  of  the  town  system,  there  is  much 
better  administration  of  schools,  better  teachers  are  employed,  and  better 
results  are  obtained." 

Oeorge  H.  Martin,  Secretary  of  State  Board  of  Education.  Massachusetts. — 
"This  State  began  agitation  of  the  abolition  of  the  district  system  in  1826 
and  continued  it  until  the  system  was  finally  abolished,  root  and  branch,  in 
1882.  No  question  has  arisen  since  in  regard  to  the  wisdom  of  the  move- 
ment nor  is  it  ever  likely  to  arise.  The  township  is  in  the  judgment  of  the 
people  of  this  State,  the  only  system  under  which  public  schools  of  a  satis- 
factoi-y  character  can  be  maintained." 

M.  Bates  Stephens,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Maryland. — 
"We  Marylanders  think  it  (the  district  system)  prevents  the  essential  fea- 
tures of  uniformity  and  hinders  proper  supervision.  As  it  seems  to  me  your 
people  will  make  a  mistake  should  the  township  system  be  disregarded." 

M.  P.  Shaickey,  Superintendent  Puhlic  Instruction.  West  Yirginia. — "This 
State  has  had  a  'township'  system  of  administration  of  schools  for  many 
years.  It  has  proved  so  satisfactory  that  there  is  little  disposition  to  change 
it.  Of  recent  years  there  has  been  some  agitation  on  the  proposition  to 
adopt  a  county  limit  for  taxation  so  that  the  poorer  and  more  sparsely  popu- 
lated communities  might  have  an  equal  length  of  term  v/ith  the  richer 
communities." 

Payson  Smith,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  Maine. — "The  dis- 
trict school  system  was  abolished  in  this  State  only  after  prolonged  agita- 
tion and  discussion.  At  the  time  of  the  abolition  of  the  district  system  there 
was  strong  opposition  to  the  measure.  This  opposition  continued  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  to  disturb  the  schools.  However,  it  is  now  the  very  general 
verdict  of  our  people  and  the  nearly  unanimous  opinion  of  our  educators 
that  the  step  was  one  of  the  most  important  that  has  been  taken  in  the  di- 
rection of  progress.  Under  our  former  district  system  the  average  citizen 
had  little  interest  in  the  schools  of  his  town  except  in  the  one  located  in  his 
own  district.  This  interest  in  the  local  school  unfortunately  often  took  the 
form  of  interference  in  the  details  of  school  management,  even  to  the  extent 
of  interference  with  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  teacher.  Under  that 
system  also  the  distribution  of  school  funds  was  most  unfair  and  there 
could  be  nothing  resembling  equality  of  opportunity  so  long  as  it  prevailed. 
Of  course,  it  would  be  too  much  to  say  that  the  difficulties  I  have  mentioned 
disappeared  entirely  with  the  abolition  of  the  districts,  but  I  believe  I  speak 
conservatively  when  I  say  that  at  the  present  time  a  much  better  educational 
policy  prevails  throughout  the  State  as  a  result  of  the  tov>'nship  system. 
I  may  add  that  recently  there  has  been  a  growing  tendency  to  enlarge  the 
school  unit  in  the  direction  of  making  it  that  of  the  State  rather  than  the 
township.  I  do  not  believe  that  in  itself  the  township  system  is  more  expen- 
sive than  the  district  system.  Indeed,  it  is  my  opinion  that  there  is  greater 
waste  under  the  latter.  It  may  be  true,  however,  that  the  disposition  to  con- 
sider the  school  problems  of  a  town  as  a  whole  tends  to  enlarge  the  sense  of 
responsibility  on  the  part  of  the  town  towards  education  and  thus  ultimately 
to  increase  school  expenditures.  I  regret  that  I  can  give  you  no  exact 
figures  on  this  point.  Of  course,  our  school  expenditures  have  been  increas- 
ing each  year,  but  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  they  would  not  have  in- 
creased had  the  district  system  continued  in  force.  I  feel  very  sure  that  any 
proposal  to  return  to  the  district  system  in  this  State  would  be  met  v>'ith  very 
general  and  emphatic  opposition." 

Walter  E.  Banger,  Commissioner  of  Public  Schools.  Rhode  Island. — "To 
one  like  myself  who  has  experienced  the  change  from  district  to  town  sys- 
tem of  schools  in  two  New  England  States,  the  district  system  seems  archaic 
and  absolutely  inadequate  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  times  for  public 
schooling,  in  distinction  from  private  education.  The  district  system  is  only 
one  step  from  home  or  private  schooling.  You  can  educate  efficiently  all  the 
children  of  a  town  only  by  having  uniformly  good  schools  throughout  the 
town.  Under  the  district  system  I  never  knew  a  town  of  good  schools  any- 
where, or  a  town  maintaining  a  reasonable  equality  of  school  advantages 
among  different  districts. 


132 

A  town  system  promises  the  following  advantages:  1.  More  efficient  ad- 
ministration with  comparatively  less  effort  and  cost.  2.  Greater  publicity 
and  greater  effort  to  remedy  evils.  3.  All  the  people  assuming  responsibility 
for  school  education  of  all  pupils  in  town.  4.  The  machinery  of  a  town 
system  is  better  adapted  for  improvement.  It  means  progress.  5.  Better 
equality  of  taxation  among  citizens  of  towns.  6.  Greater  equality  of  educa- 
tional opportunity  among  the  public's  children.  7.  The  administration  of 
schools  is  by  towns  as  units  just  as  that  of  roads,  bridges  and  other  inter- 
ests. 8.  School  officers  are  more  susceptible  to  public  opinion  at  large. 
9.  Calls  for  stronger  class  of  men  to  manage  schools.  10.  Promotes  unity 
of  town  in  all  efforts  for  better  things." 

Further  citations  of  the  expressed  convictions  of  the  leading  school 
oflScers  of  the  country  would  perhaps  be  superfluous.  Why  this  practi- 
cally unanimous  opinion  among  them  that  the  township  system  of  school 
organization  is  superior  to  the  district  system?  Is  it  because  they  are 
unfriendly  to  the  district  school  and  wish  to  weaken  or  destroy  the  work 
of  "the  little  red  school  house?"  It  is  absurd  to  suppose  that  this  is 
the  case.  Is  it  because  they  are  not  acquainted  with  the  conditions  and 
needs  of  the  rural  schools  and  do  not  take  these  into  consideration  in 
arriving  at  an  opinion  with  respect  to  school  organization?  Such  a  sup- 
position is  a  reflection  on  both  their  public  spirit  and  their  intelligence, 
and,  in  the  case  of  elected  officers  at  least,  it  is  a  reflection  upon  the  in- 
telligence of  the  people  themselves  who  have  elevated  these  men  to  the 
highest  offices  connected  with  the  administration  of  their  school  systems. 
All  such  suppositions  and  reflections  must  be  dismissed  as  unworthy  of 
consideration  in  a  serious  discussion.  Does  not  candor  compel  the  ad- 
mission that  the  conviction  on  the  part  of  these  men  of  the  superiority 
of  the  township  system  over  the  district  system  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
they  are  profoundly  interested  in  the  promotion  of  the  educational  in- 
terests of  their  respective  states,  that  they  have  observed  and  studied 
the  operation  of  both  systems,  and  have  consequently  learned  by  study 
and  by  actual  experience  that  the  district  system  is  unsuited  to  modern 
conditions  and  that  it  stands  in  the  way  of  educational  progress  ?  These 
school  officers  are  men  who  on  account  of  their  interest  in  educational 
questions,  and  especially  on  account  of  their  relation  to  the  public  school 
system  of  their  states,  are  accustomed  to  consider  methods  of  school 
organization  and  administration  with  reference  to  their  general  and  per- 
manent effects,  which  is  the  manner  in  which  such  methods  should  al- 
ways be  considered.  Now,  whose  opinions  are  most  likely  to  be  worthy 
of  acceptation,  those  of  men  who  are  reauired  by  their  duties  to  be 
familiar  with  the  educational  conditions  and  needs  of  the  Stite,  and  who 
are  compelled  by  their  position  to  take  the  broader  view  of  educational 
questions,  or  those  of  men  whose  vocational  interests  and  whose  relation 
to  the  school  system  naturally  tend  to  limit  their  educational  horizon 
to  the  boundaries  of  the  school  district  in  which  they  reside?  It  is 
certainly  no  reflection  upon  the  intelligence  of  men  who  have  not  had 
occasion  to  think  much  about  educational  systems  to  refuse  to  allow 
their  opinion  on  the  best  method  of  organizing  the  schools  for  adminis- 
trative purposes  to  have  a  predominating  influence  in  determining  the 
question.     It  is  rather  an  indication  of  superior  intelligence  to  trust 


133 

matters  requiring  expert  knowledge  to  experts,  and  the  reliance  ol  a 
democratic  state  upon  experts  responsible  to  the  people  is  absolutely 
essential  to  the  successful  administration  of  its  affairs. 

Lest  it  be  said  that  the  opinions  heretofore  quoted  are  largely  specu- 
lative, and  that  if  the  township  system  were  adopted  in  Illinois  the 
result  would  be  unfavorable  to  the  schools,  it  may  be  well  to  introduce 
further  testimony  in  regard  to  the  results  in  those  states  which  have 
adopted  the  township  system.  Massachusetts  discarded  the  district  sys- 
tem completely  in  1882.  "During  the  years  of  its  duration,"  says  the 
Hon.  J.  VV.  Dickinson,  formerly  secretary  of  the  Massachusetts  board  of 
education,  "experience  had  jjroven  the  system  to  be  productive  of  much 
evil  and  but  little  good.  Under  its  intiuence  many  of  the  school  houses 
of  the  town  were  poor,  the  schools  taught  in  them  were  small,  and,  of 
necessity,  were  short  and  were  provided  with  poor  teachers.  The  juost 
intelligent  friends  of  the  public  schools  had  struggled  to  free  their  com- 
munities from  a  system  which  they  felt  was  opposed  alike  to  harmony 
and  progress."  To  propose  a  return  to  the  district  system  in  Massachu- 
setts would  today  awaken  about  as  much  interest  as  a  proposal  to  return 
to  stage  coaches  and  canal  boats  as  means  of  travel.  iSIew  Hampshire 
adopted  the  town  system  in  1885.  The  then  state  superintendent  of 
New  Hampshire  in  speaking  of  the  defects  of  the  district  system-  said, 
"It  will  readily  be  seen  that  it  defeats  measurably  the  very  end  for  which 
public  schools  are  established,  as  it  fails  to  diffuse,  with  an  equable  hand, 
that  intelligence  which  is  essential  to  the  safetv  and  highest  prosperity 
of  the  republic.  ]t  gives  to  the  minority  of  children  in  villages  and 
cities  extraordinary  opportunities,  and  very  ordinary  ones  to  the  ma- 
jority scattered  over  the  country  towns.  It  gives  to  the  children  of  non- 
taxpaying  foreigners,  concentrated  in  large  places,  privileges  that  it 
witliholds  from  the  children  of  taxpayino-  natives  in  the  rural  districts. 
It  gives  to  the  child  of  the  man  who  pays  a  heavy  tax  in  a  small  district 
less  schooling  than  to  the  child  of  the  man  who  only  pays  a  poll  tax  in 
a  large  one."  The  same  year  in  which  New  Hampshire  entered  upon 
the  town  system  it  was  adopted  in  Maine.  Three  years  afterward  Hon. 
N.  A.  Luce,  who  had  been  state  superintendent  at  the  time  of  the  adop- 
tion of  the  new  system,  declared  that  "the  advantages  claimed  for  the 
towns  over  the  district  system  are  not  theoretical.  They  are  the  result 
of  experience.  True,  the  number  of  schools  will  be  reduced,  and  they 
should  be.  But  such  a  reduction  will  vv^ork  no  deprivation  of  right  or 
privilege  at  all  comparable  with  that  wrought  by  tlie  district  system. 
Nor  will  such  reduction  be  arbitrary  and  ill-advised  for  it  is  an  inci- 
dental, not  a  direct  consequence  of  the  change  of  the  system."  Vermont 
adopted  the  town  system  in  1892.  An  ex-state  superintendent  of  Ver- 
mont declared  that  "the  district  system  has  become  burdensomely  com- 
plex, and  its  parts  have  grown  incongruous  with  one  another,  an  evident 
sign  of  decrepitude.  The  town  system  is  vigorous  and  simple  and  has 
shown  satisfactory  results  in  all  classes  of  towns,  proving  sufficiently 
its  adaptation  to  the  entire  state."  Another  ex-state  superintendent  of 
Vermont  savs,  "the  experience  of  another  two  years  in  the  common 
schools  of  the  state  has  still  more  fullv  convinced   many  of  the  utter 


134 

inefficiency  of  our  plan  of  district  management.  It  is  very  worthy  of 
note  that  most  of  the  teachers,  and  nearly  all  others  who  have  been 
practically  connected  with  the  schools,  favor  the  change  of  the  district 
for  the  town  manairement.''  The  opinion  of  tlie  '">Tesent  superintendent 
of  that  state  has  already  been  nuoted.  In  his  report  of  1894,  from  which 
some  of  the  expressions  previouslv  quoted  Iiave  been  drawn,  he  enumer- 
ates among  the  advantages  of  the  larger  unit,  better  teachers,  better 
school  houses,  better  sunnlics,  and  better  manaaement,  and  offers  various 
proofs  to  show  that  these  have  been  the  results  of  the  town  svstem. 

The  history  of  education  in  many  of  the  states  now  under  the  district 
system  shows  that  school  men  generally  have  been  conscious  of  its  dis- 
advantages and  have  favored  the  township  plan.  Illinois  furnishes  a 
good  .example.  In  that  state  every  superintendent  from  the  beginning 
has  favored  township  organization. 

The  first  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  in  Illinois  was  the 
Honorable  N^inian  W.  Edwards,  who  was  appointed  in  1854.  In  his 
first  report  he  proposed  "to  entrust  the  entire  jurisdiction  of  the  system 
to  a  township  board  of  education.  Under  the  present  system,"  said 
he,  "the  number  of  directors  and  trustees  in  each  township  is  so  great 
as  effectually  to  defeat  the  objects,  and  to  prevent  anything  like  an 
effective  supervision,  without  which  no  schools  can  prosper.  By  com- 
mitting the  entire  jurisdiction  to  one  board,  not  only  will  there  be 
securecl  a  geeneral  and  effective  supervision,  but  what  is  scarcely  less 
important,  a  laudable  emulation  will  be  encouraged  among  the  schools, 
while  uniformity  in  the  mode  of  instruction,  discipline  and  police  will 
gradualy  obtain  over  the  entire  State."*  Again  he  said,  "I  would  uro-e 
the  adoption  of  what  is  called  the  township  system,  which  provides, 
for  the  election  of 'one  board  of  education,  to  consist  of  trustees  selected 
as  nearly  as  possible  from  the  various  parts  of  each  townshir).  who  shall 
have  the  control  of  all  the  schools  in  the  township." f 

The  following  are  extracts  from  the  reports  of  subsequent  superin- 
tendents : 

Hon.  William  H.  Powell. — "No  state  has  ever  succeeded  in  perfecting  a 
free  school  system  with  such  a  mongrel  plan  as  the  one  under  which  we  are 
now  working  in  this  State.  The  defects  of  the  present  law  are  radical  de- 
fects, and  wholly  incapable  of  being  effectually  remedied  by  any  alterations 
or  amendments.  The  only  adequate  remedy  is  to  repeal  the  law,  and  enact 
an  entirely  new  one,  based  upon  a  similar  organization.  ******* 
Until  such  a  system  is  adopted,  the  highest  success,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
undersigned,  need  not  be  looked  for."    [Public  School  Report,  1857-8,  page  13.] 

Hon.  Neivton  Bateman. — "With  my  whole  heart  I  believe  that  the  highest 
success  cannot  be  attained  with  our  present  local  organization,  and  that  the 
true  remedy  is  the  township  system  .  It  was  recommended  by  our  first  State 
superintendent  and  has  been  indorsed  by  all  his  successors;  I  have  cited  in 
its  favor  the  earnest  approval  of  some  of  the  ablest  and  best  men  of  other 
states;  it  is  sanctioned  by  every  state  superintendent  from  whom  I  have 
heard  on  the  subject;    it  has  been  in  operation  in  several  states  for  many 


♦Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,   1855,  pp,  11-12. 
tQuoted  in  PubUc  Scliool  Report,  1865-66,  p.  93. 


135 

years,  and  not  one  of  them  could  be  induced  to  return  to  the  other  plan; 
the  tendency  of  legislation  is  all  in  that  direction  in  states  where  the  system 
has  not  yet  been  established:  it  has  been  vindicated  by  experience,  vindi- 
cated by  results,  vindicated  by  its  simplicity  and  self-evident  adaptation  to 
the  wants  of  the  people  and  to  the  necessities  of  the  case:  the  prepon- 
derance of  argument,  of  experience,  of  testimony,  of  economy,  and  of  common 
sense  is  arrayed  on  its  side.  I  believe  it  is  destined  to  become,  territorily, 
the  ultimate  Americal  system  of  school  organization:  and  to  the  end  that  it 
may  speedily  be  inaugurated  and  established  in  Illinois,  I  earnestly  invoke 
the  cooperation  of  the  friends  of  common  schools,  and  the  favorable  regard 
of  the  General  Assembly.     [Public  School  Report,  1865-66,  page  113.1 

Hon.  8.  M.  Etter. — "The  township  plan  would  not  only  equalize  the  school 
expenses,  but  it  would  be  the  means  of  securing  better  teachers  and  better 
school  advantages  at  a  much  less  expense  than  can  be  secured  by  the  system 
of  dividing  the  territory  into  small,  insignificant  parts.  ****** 
I  firmly  believe  that  the  adoption  of  the  tov^'nship  system  will  give  a  new 
impetus  and  life  to  our  public  school  work  in  every  county  in  the  State, 
and  when  once  understood,  if  adopted,  that  the  people  will  be  satisfied  with 
it."     [Public  School  Report,  1875-6,  pages  432-3.1 

Hon.  James  P.  Slade. — "It  is  unfortunate,  I  think,  that  our  school  system 
makes  the  district,  instead  of  the  township,  the  unit:  for  the  schools  would 
be  more  intelligently  managed  if  under  the  control  of  a  board  selected  from 
a  whole  township."     [Public  School  Report,  1879-80,  page  44.] 

Hon.  Henry  Raab. — "Should  a  bill  for  an  Act  be  introduced  in  the  next 
General  Assembly  for  a  change  from  the  district  system  to  the  township 
system,  it  is  confidently  hoped  that  our  legislators  will  feel  the  necessity  of 
taking  this  reformatory  step  at  this  time.  The  advantages  are  so  many  un- 
der the  new  plan  that  those  who  bring  about  the  change  will  deserve  the 
thanks  of  the  people."  [Public  School  Report,  1885-6,  page  CCXXIV.l 

Richard  Edwards. — "Many  earnest  educators  would  be  glad  to  see  a 
change  by  which  the  present  school  district  should  be  abolished  and  every 
township  should  constitute  a  district  by  itself.  For  this,  many  sound  and 
convincing  reasons  are  urged.  The  principal  opposition  to  it  arises  from  the 
dread  of  a  centralization  of  power.  It  is  also  suggested  that  the  present 
system  which  employs  43,000  school  officers  without  compensation  is  a  pow- 
erful educator  to  this  vast  multitude:  that  the  directors  in  some  rural  dis- 
tricts, although  ill-qualified  to  determine  the  grave  questions  that  concern 
schools  are  yet  improved  by  their  experience  as  directors.  These  arguments 
undoubtedly  have  some  value.  But  for  the  sake  of  educating  these  men 
we  can  scarcely  afford  to  degrade  the  quality  of  the  education  furnished  to 
our  1,118,472  children  of  school  age."  [Public  School  Report,  1887-8,  page 
CLXXXVI.l 

Hon.  Alfred  Bayliss. — "There  is  one  other  [handicap!  less  obvious  than 
these,  but  which  is  the  cause  of  all  of  them.  I  refer  to  the  small  district 
system.  Years  ago  Horace  Mann  declared  that  the  practice  of  dividing 
towns  into  school  districts  was  the  most  unfortunate  law  on  the  subject  of 
schools  ever  enacted  in  Massachusetts.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  same 
thing  may  be  said,  without  reservation,  of  the  Illinois  school  law.  The  di- 
vision of  responsibility  has  been  carried  one  step  too  far.  If  the  congres- 
sional tov>'nship  could  remain  as  now  the  unit  of  our  system,  but  not  sub- 
ject to  division,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  country  schools  should  not  be  as 
generally  efficient  as  the  city  schools,  and  not  infrequently  more  so.  Horace 
Mann's  opinion  is  the  opinion  of  students  of  school  organization,  almost 
without  exception."     [Public  School  Report.  1904-6,  page  25.] 


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Bardeen.  C.  W. — The  present  status  of  the  township  system  ;  in  School  issues  of 
the  dav.     1890.  No.  8. 


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Township  and  district  systems.     Comparative  cost.     In  National  Educational  Asso- 
ciation.    Proceedings.     1897  :508-10. 
■Township  system  in  the  United  States.     United  States  Commissioner  of  Education. 

Report,  1877  :39. 
Township  supervision  in  Ohio.     Educational  Review,  4:409. 


Township  Organization  of  Schools  in  Illinois. 


The  public  schools  of  Illinois  are  organized  and  administered  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  following  general  plan :  The  public  schools  of  the 
entire  State  are  under  the  general  supervision  of  the  superintendent 
of  public  instruction,  which  is  the  legal  title  of  the  officer  usually  called 
State  Superintendent  of  Schools.  The  State  ds  divided  into  102  coun- 
ties and  schools  of  each  county  are  under  the  direct  supervision  of 
a  county  superintendent  of  schools.  Each  county  contains  on  the  av- 
erage about  eighteen  and  one-half  congressional  townships,  making 
the  total  number  of  such- townships  in  the  State  1,882.  Each  congres- 
sional township  is  established  by  law  as  a  township  for  school  purposes. 
In  each  congressional  township  three  trustees  of  schools  are  elected. 
These  trustees  exercise  over  the  school  affairs  of  the  township  an  au- 
thority chiefly  but  not  exclusively  financial.  Each  township  in  the 
State  is  divided  into  districts,  thirty-five  of  which  exist  liy  virtue  of 
special  legislative  action.  The  schools  of  a  district  are  managed  by 
boards  of  three  directors  in  districts  having  a  population  of  one  thou- 
sand or  fewer,  and  by  boards  of  education  in  districts  containing  more 
than  one  thousand  inhabitant^:. 

'From  this  brief  description  it  will  l)e  seen  that  the  school  system  of 
Illinois  is  in  a  high  degree  complex.  There  is  a  state  system,  but  noth- 
ing comparable  to  the  highly  organized  system  of  some  of  the  other 
states,  as,  for  instance,  Xew  York.  There  is  a  county  system,  but  the 
county  is  not  the  real  unit  of  school  organization  as  in  Louisiana. 
There  is  the  form  of  the  township  system  in  as  much  as  each  congres- 
sional township  is  a  school  townsliip  in  which  school  business  is  trans- 
acted by  a  corporation  known  as  the  trustees  of  schools.  Finally  there 
is  the  district  system.  "Ours,"  said  JSTewton  Bateman,  "is,  strictly 
speaking,  neither  the  town  system,  nor  the  local  sul)-district  system, 
but  an  awkward  and  perplexing  combination  of  both;  possessing  the 
appropriate  excellences  of  neither,  with  the  disadvantages  of  each."'* 

Still,  if  one  were  asked  to  characterize  the  school  svstem  of  Illinois 
with  respect  to  its  unit  of  school  organization  it  would  have  to  be  said 
that  the  schools  of  the  State  are  operated  under  the  district  svstem,  for 
the  district  is  the  chief  factor  in  school  administration.  The  trustees 
of  each  township  are  vested  with  the  general  power  and  authority 
"to  lay  off  the  township  into  one  or  more  school  districts."  District 
brundaries  may  be  changed    and    districts    may  bo  divided    and    sub- 

•Sixth  Biennial  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Illinois,  p.  65. 


138 

divided  or  consolidated  by  the  township  trustees  of  schools  on  peti- 
tion of  a  majority  of  the  voters  of  the  districts  affected  bv  the  pro- 
posed change.  Each  district  has  its  own  board  of  directors,  or  board 
of  education  as  the  case  may  be,  which  controls  and  manages  the  school 
or  schools  within  its  borders.  This  princi])le  of  subdivision  of  town- 
ships into  districts  and  the  local  management  of  schools  is  what  really 
constitutes  the  district  system. 

Now  the  district  system,  as  has  been  suggested,  is  a  very  simple  one 
Avhen  considered  from  the  view  point  of  a  single  district,  but  it  is  a  very 
complex  and  awkward  system  when  considered  from  the  viewpoint  of  the 
county  or  the  State.  There  are,  for  instance,  in  Illinois  in  round  num- 
bers twelve  thousand  school  districts.  Each  district  is  more  or  less  in- 
dependent of  all  other  districts.  It  plans  and  builds  its  own  school 
house,  selects  its  own  teacher,  determines  what  wages  shall  be  paid, 
directs  what  branches  of  study  shall  be  taught,  and  what  text  books  and 
apparatus  shall  be  used.  Obviously  there  will  be  under  any  system  of 
this  kind  many  grades  of  educational  effort  and  many  standards  of  ex- 
cellence in  the  development  of  schools.  No  general  plan  of  imnrovement 
is  possible.  Without  some  sort  of  agency  to  unify,  harmonize  and  direct 
the  educational  work  of  the  various  districts  there  could  hardly  be 
anything  like  system  in  the  school  work  of  the  county  or  the  State. 

To  provide  such  an  agency  Illinois,  as  well  as  every  other  state  in 
the  union,  has  developed  some  method  of  town,  county  or  large  district 
and  State  supervision  of  schools.  In  Illinois,  as  was  said  before,  we 
have  county  supervision  and  State  supervision.  Neither  the  one  nor 
the  other  would  be  possible,  however,  had  not  the  districts  made  some 
concession  with  respect  to  the  local  control  of  schools  and  neither  can 
be  brought  to  the  highest  state  of  efficiency  until  the  district  system 
is  discarded.  The  moment  county  or  State  supervision  is  undertaken 
the  district  system  annears  in  a  new  light.  It  is  then  seen  to  stand  in 
the  way  of  effective  supervision,  to  be  cumbersome,  uneconomical  and 
inefficient.  Hence,  the  snnervisor  of  schools  will,  as  a  rule,  be  found 
opposed  to  that  system.  Horace  Mann,  for  instance,  after  some  ex- 
perience with  it  in  Massachusetts,  declared  that  the  law  of  that  state 
passed  in  1789  and  authorizing  the  towns  of  that  Commonwealth  to 
divide  themselves  into  districts  was  "the  most  unfortunate  law,  on  the 
subject  of  common  schools,  ever  enacted  in  the  State.''*  A  study  of 
the  educational  history  of  Illinois  will  show  that  the  educational  leaders 
of  the  State  have  almost  invariably  been  o^^-'osed  to  the  district  svstem. 

Fifty-two  year.=  ago,  for  instance,  a  committee  of  the  Illinois  State 
Teachers'  Association  reported  in  favor  of  a  change  from  the  district  sys- 
tem to  the  township  system.  Every  superintendent  of  public  instruction 
in  Illinois  has  favored  township  organization,  and  at  least  eight  of  them 
have  advocated  it  in  their  renorts.  Extracts  from  some  of  these  reports 
containing:  the  opinions  of  these  men  on  this  subject  have  already  been 
quoted.  The  opinions  thev  have  exnressed  are  the  opinions  of  the  com- 
mission, and  it  would  not  be  faithful,  to  its  duty  if  it  did  not  proclaim 


♦Horace  Mann's  School  Reports,  Vol.  2,  Tenth  Annual  Report,  p.  37. 


139 

that  in  its  judgment  the  educational  interests  of  the  State  demand  that 
change  in  our  system  of  school  organization  which  has  been  so  strongh' 
urged  by  those  who  have  had  the  best  onnortunity  to  observe  the  evils 
'incident  to  the  present  system. 

The  commission  does  not  forget,  of  course,  that  the  educational  in- 
terests of  Illinois  have  made  great  progress  under  the  district  system 
of  organization.  Excellent  schools  have  been  established.  An  in- 
telligent people  has  been  produced.  In  any  consideration  of  our  educa- 
tional system  it  should  be  remembered  that  wh-atever  defects  there 
may  be  the  excellences  vastly  outweigh  them.  But  no  defect  should 
be  tolerated  merely  because  it  is  not  fatal.  Progress  has  been  made  in 
our  schools,  in  recent  years  at  least,  in  spite  of  the  district  system,  not 
because  of  it.  Useful  citizens  and  great  men  will  appear  under  any 
educational  system,  or  without  any  educational  system  at  all.  The 
district  system,  so  far  as  it  prevents  the  most  rapid  development  of 
school  facilities  and  opportunities  is  to  that  extent  an  obstacle  in  the 
way  of  the  development  of  the  people.  There  are  few  who  have  given 
careful  consideration  to  the  subject  of  school  organization  who  will 
deny  that  the  district  svstem  does  stand  in  the  way  of  better  things  in 
education.  In  the  earlier  davs  when  the  country  was  thinly  settled  it 
served  a  valuable  purpose.  The  viewpoint  was  then  naturally  if  not 
necessarily  that  of  the  district.  But  Illinois  has  developed ;  it  has  be- 
come thickly  settled;  it  has  become  in  every  sense  a  State.  Hence, 
the  earlier  system  of  school  organization  is  no  longer  adapted  to  its 
needs.  It  has  become  antiauated.  It  has  outlived  its  former  usefulness 
and  has  become  one  of  the  chief  obstacles  to  educational  advancement. 

By  the  district  system  must  be  understood,  of  course,  the  division 
of  a  township  into  districts  and  the  control  of  the  schools  of  each  dis- 
trict by  a  board  of  directors.  AVhcn  we  speak  of  supplanting  this  sys- 
tem by  a  better  system  our  remarks  should  not  be  understood  as  apply- 
ing in  any  sense  to  the  district  school.  The  district  school  will  continue 
to  exist  no  matter  what  system  is  adopted.  The  township  system  does 
not  necessarily  involve  any  centralizing  of  the  schools.  It  does  not  of 
itself  even  change  the  "location  of  a  single  school  house  or  of  a  single 
school.  It  simply  centralizes  the  management  of  the  schools.  The  chief 
object  in  suggesting  a  change  in  our  form  of  school  organization  is  to 
preserve  and  improve  the  district  school.  It  is  chiefly  because  of  the 
fact  that  under  the  district  system  the  district  school  itself  can  not  at- 
tain the  highest  state  of  development  that  the  commission  feels  war- 
ranted in  recommending  that  the  district  system  be  supplanted  by  the 
township  system. 

The  recommendation  of  a  better  system  of  public  education  is  what 
the  commission  understands  its  function  to  be.  The  existence  of  the 
commission  is  no  evidence  of  the  failure  of  our  present  educational  sys- 
tem, but  it  does  indicate  that  defects  have  been  observed  and  that  im- 
provements are  possible.  The  educational  commission  of  Pennsylvania 
expressed,  through  its  chairman,  the  desire  "to  make  the  school  sys- 
tem of  Pennsylvania  the  best  in  the  country."  This  is  perhaps  the 
ambition  of  all  state  educational  commissions  with  respect  to  their  own 


140 

state.  But  in  the  judgmeut  of  the  Illinois  Commission  the  school  sys- 
tem in  Illinois  can  not  be  made  the  best  in  the  country  with  its  present 
system  of  school  organization.  Again,  according  to  a  resolution  adopted 
by  the  State  Teachers'  Association,  December  28,  1900,  the  purpose  of 
the  commission  is  to  gather  "all  the  data  necessary  for  an  intelligent 
reorganization  of  the  entire  public  school  svstem,  which  shall  result  in 
placing  it  on  the  plane  of  the  best  in  the  world,  for  simplicity,  adapta- 
tion and  efficiency."  The  commission  earnestly  desires  to  realize  this 
purpose.  It  has  been  inspired  by  the  hope  of  being  able  to  present  for 
the  consideration  of  the  people  of  the  State  and  for  favoral)le  action  by 
the  General  Assembly  such  improvements  of  our  system  of  education 
as  will  not  merely  place  it  on  the  plane  of  the  best  in  the  w'orld,  but 
actually  make  it  the  best.  Tliis  hope  is  shared,  no  doubt,  by  all  who  are 
interested  in  its  work.  But  it  may  as  avcII  be  admitted  that  such  an 
ambition  or  hope  can  not  possibly  be  realized  if  the  district  system  of 
school  organization  is  preserved.  In  the  language  of  a  former  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction,  "no  state  has  ever  succeeded  in  per- 
fecting a  free  school  system  with  such  a  mongrel  plan  as  the  one  under 
which  w'e  are  now  working  in  this  State.'^ 

If  this  is  true,  and  it  is  almost  obviously  so,  there  ought  to  be  no 
objection  to,  but  on  the  contrary  the  heartiest  sympathy  with,  a  pro- 
posal to  introduce  into  the  educational  system'  of  the  State  the  few 
changes  necessary  to  reduce  its  complexity  to  the  simnlicity  and  order 
that  would  attend  the  establishment  of  the  township  as  the  real  unit 
of  school  organization.  There  are  several  methods  by  which  this  end 
may  be  accomplished. 

In  the  first  place  the  school  law  of  the  State  might  be  so  amended 
as  to  enable  any  township  by  a  ma  J  or  it"  vote  of  its  peonle  to  abolish 
its  district  boards  of  directors  and  place  all  of  its  schools  under  the  con- 
trol and  management  of  the  township  trustees  of  schools.  The  trustees 
have  the  power  under  the  ji resent  law,  when  petitioned  by  a  majority 
of  the  legal  voters  of  each  district  affected  by  the  change,  to  consoli- 
date districts.  But  in  all  probability  the  transfer  from  one  system  to 
the  other  would  never  be  made  by  the  separate  initiative  of  the  differ- 
ent districts  of  the  State.  Even  if  a  specific  act  enabling  townships  to 
introduce  the  township  system  were  passed,  it  would  be  necessary  to 
offer  some  special  inducement  to  overcome  the  inertia  of  a  township 
and  secure  independent  action. 

This  method  of  passing  from  the  district  system  to  the  township 
system  by  the  separate  action  of  different  townships  is  perhaps  the 
least  promising.  It  would  result  at  best  only  in  giving  to  the  State,  for 
a  long  time  at  least,  a  double  system  of  school  organization.  Connec- 
ticut tried  this  method.  In  1841  a  law  was  passed  allowing  two  or  more 
adjoining  school  districts  to  unite  and  form  a  union  district.  In  1860 
another  step  was  taken  by  giving  to  each  town  the  power  to  form, 
alter  and  dissolve  school  districts  within  its  limits.  Finally  in  186G 
towns  were  authorized  on  a  majority  vote  of  their  people  to  abolish 
all  school  districts  and  parts  of  districts  Avithin  their  limits  and  to  as- 
sume and  maintain  the  control  of  their  public  schools.  In  Connecticut, 
therefore,  for  almost  fifty  years  the  town  system  has  been  permissive. 


141 

N'evertheless,  seventy-eight  of  the  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  towns 
of  that  state  are  still  under,  the  district  system.  There  is  consequently 
great  impatience  among  the  school  men  of  Connecticut  on  account  of 
the  slowness  with  which  the  township  method  operates.  The  more 
backward  the  district  the  less  likely  it  is  to  proceed  to  organize  its 
scliools  under  town  authority.  We  hnd,  for  instance,  a  member  of  the 
town  school  committee  of  New  Milford,  Conn.,  in  a -recent  address 
before  the  Connecticut  State  Teachers'  Association  declaring  that  "the 
parent  of  all  evils  in  the  schools  of  the  small  towns  is  the  district  sys- 
tem. A  system  long  outgrown,  a  breeder  of  discord,  promoter  of 
financial  stinginess,  the  essence  of  misrule.  ...  . .  .a  blot  upon  the  edu- 
cational system  of  our  state.''  He  recommends  an  act  compelling  the 
adoption  of  town  management  of  schools  in  all  towns  not  later  than 
July,  1910.  "Such  legislation,"  he  says,  "would  remove  a  great  dis- 
grace from  our  State,  be  no  undue  burden  of  expense  on  anyone  and 
mark  a  long  step  forward  in  school  management."  low'a  is  another 
state  whose  educational  history  is  instructive  on  this  point.  For  many 
3'ears  that  state  has  had  legislation  permitting  township  organization, 
but  the  district  system  still  exists  in  about  one-third  of  the  state.  It 
is  easy  to  understand,  then,  why  the  township  method  of  adopting  town- 
ship organization  is  highly  unsatisfactory  to  the  friends  of  the  town- 
ship system.  It  is  too  slow  and  it  burdens  the  state  with  the  incon- 
veniences and  evils  of  a  double  system. 

Another  method  of  supplanting  the  district  system  by  the  township 
system  is  that  of  allowing  counties  at  their  own  option  to  pass  from 
one  system  to  the  other.  The  school  law  might  be  so  amended,  for  in- 
stance, as  to  enable  county  commissioners  or  boards  of  supervisors  on 
petition  of  a  certain  percentage  of  the  voters  of  a  county  to  hold  an 
election  in  which  the  question  of  township  school  organization  would 
be  submitted  to  the  people.  This  is  the  metliod  provided  in  the  present 
law  of  the  State  for  adopting  township  organization  politically.  On 
petition  of  fifty  or  more  legal  voters  of  a  county  the  county  board  is 
required  to  submit  to  the  voters  of  the  countv  the  question  of  town- 
ship organization.  If  the  question  is  carried  commissioners  are  ap- 
pointed to  divide  the  county  into  townships.  There  may  seem  to  be 
some  inconsistency  in  providing  for  a  countv  vote  upon  what  may  seem 
to  be  almost  wholly  a  township  proposition.  But  it  should  not  be  for- 
gotten that  our  system  of  county  scliool  supervision  and  the  inter- 
relations of  our  people  make  any  change  in  the  organization  of  the 
schools  of  a  township  a  question  of  importance  to  the  whole  county. 
North  Dakota  provides  in  its  school  law  that  the  countv  commissioners 
together  with  the  county  sunerintendcnt  of  schools  "shall  nuikc  such 
changes  generally  in  the  boundary  lines  of  the  school  districts  of  the 
county,  not  in  their  judgment  detrimental  to  the  interests  of  the  schools 
of  the  county,  as  will  reduce  the  number  of  school  districts  in  the 
county,  and  form  school  districts  not  extended  beyond  the  boundaries 
of  the  civil  townships."  Under  the  operation  of  this  law,  and  of  other 
enactments  preventing  the  introduction  of  the  district  system  in  coun- 
ties newly  organized,  all  of  the  counties  of  North  Dakota  but  five  are 
now  under  township  organization. 


142. 

There  appears  to  be  no  legal  obstacle  in  the  way  of  this  method  of 
adopting  the  township  system.  It  is  plainly  superior  to  the  method 
previously  described  for  it  Tiromises  a  more  rapid  spread  of  the  town- 
ship system  of  organization  over  the  State.  The  separate  action  of  one 
hundred  and  two  counties  would  probably  not  require  so  much  time  as 
the  separate  action  of  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  cisrhty-two  town- 
ships. If  township  organization  were  in  the  experimental  stage,  if 
there  were  uncertainty  in  regard  to  its  adaptation  to  the  educational 
needs  of  the  State,  this  method  of  adontinof  it  would  perhaps  be  advis- 
able. But  the  township  system  is  not  in  an  experimental  stage.  It  has 
long  since  demonstrated  its  superiority  over  the  district  system  in  all  • 
the  states  that  have  given  it  a  trial.  Why  then  resort  to  any  method 
that  would  delay  the  benefits  of  a  simpler  organization?  Why  not  ac- 
cept a  demonstrated  conclusion?  Progress  is  more  rapidly  made  by  ac- 
cepting the  results  of  the  experience  of  other  than  by  experimenting 
ourselves  to  ascertain  these  results. 

A  third  method  of  making  the  desired  change  and.  in  the  opinion 
of  the  commission  the  best  method,  is  to  enact  an  amendment  to  the  law 
of  the  State  providing  that  the,  control  and  management  of  all  schools 
in  districts  not  governed  by  boards  of  education,  and  the  control  and 
management  of  township  high  schools,  shall  be  placed  at  once  in  the 
hands  of  the  township  boards  of  trustees.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to 
discontinue  boards  of  directors  and  townshins  boards  of  education  in 
control  of  high  schools  and  vest  all  the  power  of  these  boards  in  the 
trustees  of  schools.  This  is  an  easy  method,  a  simple  method,  and  it 
would  obviously  be  the  most  effective.  Whatever  benefits  are  to  be 
derived  from  the  township  system  of  organization  would  be  obtained 
at  once.  The  State  would  pass  immediately  from  the  district  svstem  to 
the  township  system.  The  simplicity  of  this  method  as  applied  to  Illi- 
nois and  the  ease  by  which  the  State  could  nass  from  one  svstem  to  the 
other  if  this  method  were  adopted  are  obvious.  If  it  is  asked  what 
would  be  the  practical  effects  of  a  law  putting'  this  method  into  operation, 
let  I^ewton  Bateman,  one  of  the  best  superintendents  of  public  instruc- 
tion that  Illinois  has  had,  make  answer.  "Not  a  right,  power,  or  duty 
of  the  State  Superintendent,  or  anv  county  superintendent,  would  be 
added,  substracted,  changed  or  modified  in  any  manner  whatever,  the 
office  of  township  treasurer  would  be  iust  as  necessary  as  before,  and  his 
powers  and  duties  remain  substantially  as  now,  though  much  simplified 
by  the  abolition  of  the  districts;  the  boards  of  trustees  and  directors 
would  continue  in  the  discharp-e  of  their  respective  duties  until  the  dav 
fixed  by  law  for  the  election  of  the  new  township  school  boards.  Upon 
the  election  and  qualificfition  of  these  boards,  all  district  boards  of  direc- 
tors throughout  the  State  would  cease  to  exist;  all  existing  district  lines 
and  boundaries  (except  when  co-incident  with  township  lines)  would 
disappear  and  be  no  more ;  all  school  houses,  lands  and  other  district 
school  property,  would  revert  and  come  into  the  control  of  the  township 
board  of  education,  who  would  thereupon  assume  and  exercise  the  rights, 
powers  and  duties,  all  and  sirig-ular.  which  now  devolve  upon  bonrds  of 
trustees  and  directors  respectively;  and  Illinois  would  forthwith  be  under 


143 

the  township  system  of  school  orsranization.  Xot  a  common  school  in 
the  State  would  be  closed  or  interfered  with,  not  a  teacher  discharged, 
not  an  existing  contract  annulled.  The  great  educational  work  of  the 
State  would  move  right  on  as  if  nothing  had  happened;  no  visible 
sign  would  appear  to  show  that  an  immense  administrative  reform  hud 
taken  place,  and  a  new  and  glorious  era  dawned  upon  our  system  of 
public  instruction.  The  vast  accumulations  of  school  property  would 
be  presei*ved  intact;  but  few  school  houses  would  have  to  be  moved, 
and  none  at  all  immediately,  for,  as  a  general  rule,  school  sites  and 
buildings  that  are  in  the  right  place  now,  wovdd  be  equally  so  then. 
Thus,  quietl}^,  without  shock  or  confusion,  almost  without  public  knowl- 
edge or  notice,  the  system  would  lay  down  the  heavy,  galling  harness  of 
her  ten-thousand-headed  policy,  and  assume  the  light  elastic  armor  of  a 
fresh,  compact  and  simple,  but  far  more  expansive  and  powerful  or- 
ganization. As  in  the  case  of  our  matchless  civil  government,  the  people 
would  be  reminded  of  its  existence  chiefly  by  the  "richness  of  the  bless- 
ings which  it  would  dispense." 

This  is  the  conclusion  of  Newton  Bateman  after  the  most  careful  con- 
sideration of  the  effect  of  entrance  upon  township  organization.  It  is 
practically  the  conclusion  at  which  anyone  will  arrive  who  will  give  the 
subject  the  thorough  and  candid  consideration  which  its  importance  de- 
serves. We  can  be  sure,  then,  of  the  adoption  of  the  township  system 
in  Illinois  if  the  relative  merits  of  the  district  system  and  the  township 
system  are  generally  studied  and  compared.  The  commission  urges  this 
study  and  comparison.  To  be  of  the  most  immediate  and  permanent 
value  the  change  suggested  by  the  commission  should  he  of  the  people 
and  by  the  people  as  it  would  most  certainly  be  for  the  people. 

We  may  conclude,  then,  with  the  utmost  confidence  that  if  in  the  edu- 
cational system  of  the  State  the  township  were  established  as  the  unit  of 
school  organization,  we  should  have  opened  the  way  to  increased  econ- 
omy and  ofTiciency  in  the  educational  work  of  the  State.  We  should 
have  substituted  unity,  harmony,  coordination,  organization,  economy, 
and  efficiency  for  separation,  disunity,  confusion,  inefficiency,  and  waste. 
Contrary  to  the  rule  by  which  advantages  are  usually  secured  this 
great  improvement  would  be  obtained  without  anv  serious  inconveni- 
ence. The  few  legal  changes  suggested  would'  enable  the  State  to 
glide  smoothly  into  the  new  svstem  without  shock  or  jar.  To  repeat 
once  more  the  language  of  "NTowton  Bateman,  "the  great  educational 
work  of  the  State  would  move  right  on  as  if  nothing  had  happened, 
no  visible  sign  would  appear  to  show  that  an  immense  administrative 
reform  had  taken  place,  and  a  new  and  glorious  era  dawned  upon  our 
system  of  public  instruction." 

Notwithstanding-  the  fact  that  the  commission  is  unanimously  of  the 
opinion  that  the  township  system  is  superior  to  the  district  system,  and 
while  it  recommends  the  former  unhesitatinglv  and  unqualifiedlv.  it  has 
been  compelled  by  the  criticism  evoked  by  its  tentative  recommenda- 
tion in  regard  to  township  organization  to  recognize  tlie  futility  of  an 
attempt  to  pass  at  one  step  from  the  one  system  to  the  other.  It  does 
not  think  it  would  be  wise  to  attempt  to  force  the  better  system  of 


144 

school  organization  upon  the  people  of  any  township  prior  to  the  time 
when  a  majority  of  the  people  of  that  township  is  persuaded  that  the 
schools  would  be  improved  by  adopting  the  new  form  of  organization. 
It  does  believe,  however,  that  when  a  majority  of  the  people  are  so  per- 
suaded tliey  should  have  the  right  to  change  from  the  old  system  to 
the  new.  This  is  democratic,  and  it  is  necessary  to  give  ex])ansiveness 
to  the  public  school  system  of  the  State.  Accordingly,  as  a  ])reliminary 
step  to  complete  township  organization,  the  commission  recommends  the 
enactment  of  the  follow-ing  bill  which  provides  for  the  vesting  under 
a  single  board  of  directors  the  control  and  management  of  the  schools 
in  the  districts  of  a  township,  no  one  of  which  districts  contains  an  in- 
corporated village  or  city: 

Section  1.  Be  it  enacted  hy  the  People  of  the  State  of  Illinois,  represented 
in  the  General  Assembly — That  upon  petition  of  fifty  voters  resident  within 
the  districts  of  a  township  no  one  of  which  districts  shall  contain  an  in- 
corporated village  or  city,  presented  to  the  trustees  of  such  township  on  or 
before  the  first  day  of  March  in  any  year,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  such  trus- 
tees to  cause  to  be  submitted  to  the  voters  of  such  districts  at  a  special  elec- 
tion called  for  that  purpose  under  the  provisions  of  section  38  of  "An  Act  to 
establish  and  maintain  a  system  of  free  schools,"  approved  and  in  force 
May  21,  1889,  and  at  least  fifteen  days  prior  to  the  regular  meeting  of  trus- 
tees of  schools  in  April,  the  question  of  voting  for  or  against  uniting  the 
control  and  management  of  the  schools  of  such  districts  under  a  single  board 
of  school  directors. 

Sec.  2.  If  it  shall  appear  upon  a  canvass  of  the  returns'  of  such  election 
that  a  majority  of  the  votes  cast  are  in  favor  of  such  union,  the  trustees 
shall  give  notice  that  on  the  third  Saturday  in  April  next  an  election  will 
be  held  in  some  convenient  place  or  places  for  the  purpose  of  electing  three 
school  directors,  no, two  of  whom  shall  be  chosen  from  the  same  sub-district. 
At  such  election  one  of  the  members  shall  be  elected  for  the  term  of  one  year, 
one  for  the  term  of  two  years  and  one  for  the  term  of  three  years,  and  an- 
nually thereafter  a  successor  to  the  member  of  such  board  whose  term  of 
office  shall  then  expire  shall  be  elected  to  serve  for  a  term  of  three  years. 

Sec.  3.  Such  board  of  directors  shall  be  vested  with  all  the  powers  and 
duties  now  or  hereafter  to  be  conferred  upon  or  required  of  boards  of  edu- 
cation in  cities  having  a  population  not  exceeding  100,000  inhabitants  and 
shall  be  the  successor  to  the  various  boards  of  directors  of  the  districts  unit- 
ing the  control  and  management  of  their  schools,  and  all  rights  of  property 
and  rights  and  causes  of  action  existing  or  vested  in  the  district  boards  of 
directors  for  the  use  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  respective  districts,  or  any 
part  of  them,  shall  vest  in  it  in  as  complete  a  manner  as  they  wei-e  vested  in 
the  directors  aforesaid. 

Sec.  4.  For  the  purposes  of  this  Act  a  district  composed  of  parts  of  two  or 
more  townships  shall  be  considered  to  be  a  part  of  a  township  in  which  the 
school  house  of  such  district  is  situated:  Provided,  however,  that  any  part 
of  such  district  may  l)e  restored  to  the  tov^nship  of  which  it  is  geographically 
a  part  whenever  a  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  that  part  of  such  district  so 
petition  the  trustees  of  schools  in  said  township.  Such  readjustment  of  ter- 
ritory shall  not  require  any  payment  of  money  or  division  of  property  on  ac- 
count thereof. 

Sec.  5.  Districts  which  have  united  the  control  and  management  of  their 
schools  under  the  provisions  of  this  Act  may  dissolve  such  union  in  the  same 
manner  as  is  provided  for  its  adoption,  but  the  question  of  dissolving  the 
union  shall  not  be  submitted  within  the  period  of  three  years  after  its  adop- 
tion. 

Sec.  6.  This  Act  shall  take  effect  and  be  in  force  from  and  after  July  1, 
1910. 


145 

Discontinuance  and  Abandonment  of  Small  Schools. 

Under  township  organization  there  should  be  vested  in  the  township 
trustees  of  schools  the  power  to  close  schools  with  an  enrollment  of 
fewer  than  fifteen  pupils  and  they  should  be  required  to  close  all  schools 
having  an  enrollment  of  fewer  than  ten  pupils. 

There  would  be  nothing  new  in  a  provision  of  this  kind.  Tlic  school 
law  of  Connecticut  in  1856  contained  the  following  provision:  "When 
any  school  district  shall  be  reduced  in  population  so  as  to  contain  less 
than  twelve  pupils  between  the  ages  of  four  and  sixteen  years  it  shall 
be  the  duty  of  the  town  or  township  within  which  such  district  is  situ- 
ated to  dissolve  the  same  and  annex  the  territory  thereof  to  the  ad- 
joining district  or  districts."  The  present  law  of  that  state  provides 
that  "no  school  need  be  maintained  in  any  district  in  which  the  aver- 
age attendance  at  the  school  in  said  district  during  the  i)rcceding  year, 
ending  the  fourteenth  day  of  July,  was  less  than  eight.  Ehode  Island 
authorizes  the  school  committee  of  any  town,  with  the  approval  of  the 
commissioner  of  public  schools,  to  consolidate  any  schools  the  average 
number  belonging  to  each  of  which  is  less  than  twelve,  or  to  unite  such 
school  or  schools  with  some  other  school  in  order  to  establish  a  graded 
school  or  to  secure  greater  efficiency  of  the  schools.  The  school  law 
of  Maine  contains  the  general  provision  that  in  case  any  school  shall 
have  too  few  pupils  for  its  profitable  nuiintenance  the  superintending 
school  committee  may  suspend  the  operation  of  such  school  for  not 
more  than  one  year.  The  law  of  that  state  prevents  the  continuance 
of  any  public  school  which  fails  to  maintain  an  average  attendance  for 
any  school  year  of  at  least  eight  pupils  unless  the  town  in  which  the 
school  is  located  shall  by  vote,  at  the  annual  meeting,  if  the  committee 
shall  have  made  a  written  recommendation  to  that  effect,  instruct  the 
superintending  school  committee  to  maintain  the  school.  The  law  of 
North  Dakota  also  provides  that  "any  school  may  be  discontinued  when 
the  average  attendance  of  pupils  therein  for  ten  consecutive  days  shall 
be  less  than  four."  Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  law  of 
Indiana  in  regard  to  the  discontinuance  and  abandonment  of  small 
schools.  That  law  reads  as  follows :  "The  township  trustees  shall  dis- 
continue and  abandon  all  schools  under  their  charge  at  which  the  aver- 
age daily  attendance  during  the  last  preceding  school  year  has  been 
twelve  pupils  or  fewer;  and  said  trustees  may  discontinue  and  abandon 
all  schools  at  which  the  average  daily  attendance  during  the  last  pre- 
ceding school  year  has  been  fifteen  pupils  or  fewer:  Provided,  the  con- 
dition as  to  roads,  streams  and  bridges  permit  of  siich  discontinuance." 
These  states  are  not  the  only  ones  which  permit  the  closing  of  small 
schools.  This  recommendation  of  the  commission  is  therefore  in  har- 
mony with  the  educational  policy  of  the  states  most  advanced  in  educa- 
tion. 

The  uiunlier  of  schools  in  Illinois  with  an  enrollment  below  the 
minima  suggested  is  1,450.  Then*  are  589  schools  with  an  enrollment 
of  less  than  ten.    These  schools  would  be  closed  at  once.    Eight  hundred 

—10  E  C 


146 

and  seventy-one  schools  have  an  enrollment  of  more  than  ten  and 
less  than  llftcen.  The  closing  of  these  schools  would  he  left  to  the 
judgment  of  the  trustees  of  the  township.  Xow,  if  we  estimate  the 
annual  cost  of  one  of  these  schools  at  $350.00,  and  that  is  a  low  estimate, 
the  saving  to  the  State  derived  from  closing  the  schools  with  fewer 
tlian  ten  pupils  would  he  $26,500.00,  and  the  possible  saving  from  clos- 
ing all  of  the  schools  with  fewer  than  fifteen  pupils  would  be  $365,- 
000.00.  This  amount  would  be  saved  outright  or  be  used  to  better  ad- 
vantage. The  children  attending  these  small  and  inefficient  schools,  for 
small  schools  are  usually  inefficient,  would  find  in  the  larger  schools 
better  social  and  educational  opportunities  than  they  now  enjoy.  Thus 
the  closing  of  these  schools  would  be  an  advantage  to  the  children,  to 
the  taxpayers,  and  to  society  at  large. 


l-JT 


THE  CERTIFICATION  OF  TEACHERS. 


Every  state  and  territory  in  the  Union  requires  teachers  in  the  public 
schools  to  hold  a  certificate  granted  by  a  specified  authority  and  declar- 
ing the  holder  to  be  of  good  character  and  to  possess  the  scholastic  quali- 
fications regarded  as  necessary  to  the  work  of  teaching.  In  more  than 
half  of  the  states,  teachers  are  required  to  be  of  a  certain  age  specified 
in  the  la\A-.  This  age  is,  as  a  rule,  eighteen  years.  In  ^Maryland,  how- 
ever, no  man  can  teach  who  is  under  the  age  of  nineteen.  The  minimum 
age  limit  is  highest  in  the  District  of  Columbia  in  which  no  one  can 
teach  who  has  not  attained  the  age  of  twenty  years. 

Table  Showing  the  Minimum  Age  Limit  of  Teachers  in  the   Various 

States. 


State. 


Age. 


State. 


Age. 


State. 


Age. 


State. 


Age. 


Alabama None. 

Arizona 18 

Arkansas None. 

California |       18 

Colorado '        18 

Connecticut.. ..  None. 

Deleware None. 

Dist    Columbia         20 

Florida None. 

<>eorgia None. 

Idaho 18 

Illinois 17-18 

Indiana None. 


Towa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine  

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi  . .. 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 


None. 
18 
18 

None. 

None. 
18-19 

None. 
18 
18 
17 

None. 
18 

None. 


Nevada 

N.  Hampshire. 
New  Jersey  ... 
New  Mexico  . . 

New  York 

N.  Carolina 

North  Dakota  . 

Ohio 

Oklohoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania.. 
Rhode  Island. . 
South  Carolina 


16 
18 
18 

None. 
18 
18 
18 
18 
16 
18 

None. 

None. 
18 


South  Dakota 
Tennessee... 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington  . 
W.  Virginia  . 
Wisconsin .. . 
Wyoming  . . . 


18 

None. 

None. 

18 

17 

18 

18 

17 

None. 

17 


Certificates  of  qualifications  are  granted,  as  a  rule,  on  some  sort  of 
scholastic  examination.  In  several  of  the  states  a  normal  school  or 
university  diploma  relieves  its  holder  of  the  necessity  of  an  examina- 
tion. There  are  other  exceptions  to  the  rule  but  the  main  avenue  to  the 
profession  of  teaching  runs  through  the  door  of  an  examination. 

Accordingly  every  state  and  territory  has  evolved  some  sort  of  exam- 
ination system  for  the  purpose  of  examining  and  certificating  the  large 
number  of  public  school  teachers  required  in  the  education  of  its 
children.  Such  system  must  necessarily  be  a  growth.  We  may,  there- 
fore, expect  to  find  the  examination  systems  of  the  different  states  in 
various  stages  of  development.  Examinations  are  conducted  and  certifi- 
cates granted  sometimes  by  one  authority  and  sometimes  by  another. 
There  are  at  least  nine  certificating  agencies  in  the  Tnitcd  States.    They 


148 

are,  state  boards  of  education,  state  superintendents,  normal  school 
boards,  boards  of  university  regents,  county  superintendents,  county 
b'-aids,  city  boards,  township  supervisors  and  school  district  committees. 
Notwithstanding  the  apparent  diversity  in  certificating  authorities, 
however,  we  may  roughly  classify  the  systems  of  examination  into  the 
town  system,  the  county  system  and  tlie  state  system.* 

The  Township  System. 

In  the  incipient  stages  of  social  development  the  local  community  pro- 
vides its  own  school,  employs  its  own  teacher,  and  deteniiines  what 
qualification  shall  be  required  of  him.  Such  was  the  case  in  the  colonial 
settlements  and  such  has  been  the  case  in  some  of  the  western  states  in 
the  early  period  of  their  development.  In  Illinois,  for  instance,  until 
1841,  the  people  of  a  community  who  desired  to  organize  a  school  em- 
ployed such  teacher  as  they  deemed  qualified  to  teach,  and  after  his 
employment  they  elected  three  of  their  number  to  superintend  the  school. 

This  local  or  district  system  of  examining  teachers  has  been  almost 
entirely  eliminated.  The  first  step  in  advance  is  from  this  primitive 
method  to  the  town  system.  In  New  Hampshire  the  school  board  of 
every  district  is  authorized  to  hold  an  examination  of  candidates  for 
certificates  of  qualification  to  teach  in  the  public  schools.  A  district  in 
that  state,  however,  is  reallv  the  town  and  hence  the  district  system  has 
become  the  town  system.  In  Massachusetts  the  town  school  committee, 
before  employing  a  teacher,  must  require  full  and  satisfactory  evidence 
of  his  moral  character  and  must  ascertain  bv  personal  examination  his 
qualifications  for  teaching  and  his  capacity  for  government  of  schools. 
So  also  in  Connecticut,  "school  visitors,  town  school  committees, .  or 
boards  of  education,  shall,  as  a  board,  or  by  a  committee  by  them  ap- 
pointed, examine  all  persons  desiring  to  teach  in  the  public  schools." 
This  town  system  existed  in  Connecticut  along  with  the  state  system. 
The  same  is  true  of  Maine  in  which  the  town  superintendent  of  schools 
examines  teachers  and  grants  certificates  or  endorses  certificates  issued 
to  teach  by  normal  school  principals. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  town  system  of  examining  teachers  is  hardly 
compatible  with  a  larger  unit  of  school  supervision.  Accordingly  in 
most  of  the  states  it  has  given  way  to  the  county  system. 

The  County  System. 

The  county  system  of  examining  and  certifying  teachers  consists,  of 
course,  in  the  examination  of  teachers  by  the  county  superintendent  or 
a  county  examining  board  and  the  granting  of  certificates  to  those  who 
are  found  qualified  to  receive  them.  This  system  exists  in  one  form  or 
another  in  about  three-fourths  of  the  states.  In  Vermont  it  is  found 
along  with  a  form  of  the  town  system  and  the  beginnings  of  a  state 


*On  these  three  systems  see  Cubberley,  The  Certification  of  Teachers,  fifth 
year-boolt  of  the  National  Society  f^-  the  Scientific  Study  of  El^'-'^iticn,  1906,  pp. 
12-24  and  47-51. 


149 

system.  The  best  examples,  however,  are  found  in  California,  Delaware, 
Illinois,  Maryland,  Oklahoma  and  Wisconsin.  There  is  no  state,  how- 
ever, in  which  the  county  system  is  employed  exclusively.  Provision 
is  made  for  some  form  of  state  certificate  granted  by  the  superintendent 
of  public  instruction  or  a  state  board  of  education  or  a  board  of  exam- 
iners. Sometimes  the  state  authority  prepares  the  questions  used  by  the 
county  superintendent  in  his  examinations;  sometimes,  as  in  Michigan, 
the  county  commissioner  may,  upon  request  of  any  holder  of  a  certificate 
of  a  second  or  third  grade  certificate,  send  the  papers  written  by  such 
person,  properly  certified  and  under  seal,  to  the  county  board  of  school 
examiners  of  any  other  county  for  their  examination ;  some  times,  as  in 
Indiana,  the  candidate  may  send  his  examination  papers  to  the  state 
superintendent  for  his  examination  and  receive,  if  he  is  successful,  a 
certificate  good  througliout  the  state. 

The  county  system  is  apparently  gradually  giving  way  to  the  larger 
and  more  uniform  system  demanded  by  the  state  supervision  of  schools. 

The  State  System. 

The  state  system  in  which  the  certificating  authority  is  lodged  wholly 
in  the  state  superiiitendent,  state  board  nt  education  or  state  board  of 
examiners,  is  best  exemplified  in  Alabama,  iowa,  Minnesota,  Nebraska, 
New  York,  Ehode  Island,  Virginia,  Washington  and  Wyoming.  In 
Alabauui  the  system  is  almost  complete.  All  examinations  are  held  and 
all  certificates  granted  by  the  state  board  of  examiners  except  in  the 
case  of  special  districts.  In  the  territory  of  Arizona  the  state  system  is 
used  exclusively.  It  seems  probable  that  the  state  system  will  come 
gradually  into  more  general  use. 

The  history  of  school  legislation  in  Illinois  affecting  the  certification 
of  teachers  illustrates  clearly  the  growth  from  the  local  or  community 
system  to  the  State  system.  Until  1841,  as  has  already  been  pointed 
out,  the  community  employed  and  examined  its  own  teachers.  In  that 
year  power  was  conferred  upon  the  town  trustees  of  schools  to  examine 
teachers  and  grant  certificates.  Later,  when  it  was  proposed  to  take 
away  from  these  trustees  this  particular  iiower  and  vest  it  in  a  county 
school  commissioner,  there  was  strong  opposition  to  the  movement.  A 
compromise  was  finally  affected  and  in  1845  an  act  was  passed  authoriz- 
ing county  school  commissioners  to  examine  and  certificate  teachers,  but 
the  act  provided  also  that  "the  trustees  of  schools  in  their  respective 
townships  shall  have  the  same  power  to  examine  teachers  as  is  given 
to  the  school  commissioners."  Finally  the  town  plan  gave  way  com- 
pletely to  the  county  plan.  Wlien  the  State  superintendency  was  created 
in  1854  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  was  authorized  to  ex- 
amine teachers  and  grant  State  certificates.  For  more  than  fifty  years 
thase  two  methods  have  existed  side  by  side.  As  the  educational  needs 
and  conditions  of  the  State  have  become  more  homogeneous  there  is  a 
demand  for  a  uniform  State  system,  and  the  Educational  Commission 
of  Illinois  has  recommended  to  "the  General  Assembly  a  uniform  plan  by 


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which  the  schohistie  qualifications  of  candidates  are  to  be  determined 
by  a  State  Board  of  Education  and  the  'lower  to  grant,  renew,  suspend 
and  revoke  certificates  is  left  to  the  county  superintendent  and  the  Su- 
perintendent of  Public  Instruction. 

The  following  tabular  statement  will  show  roughly  the  examining 
system  or  combination  of  systems  existing  in  the  various  states : 


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158 

The  Power  to  Grant,  Eexew,  SuspejJd  an!)  Eevoke  Certificates. 


In  a  really  organized  educational  system  the  superintendent  is  the 
responsible  head  of  the  schools.  The  public  naturally  looks  to  him 
for  the  systematic  organization  of  all  available  educational  forces  and 
for  educational  results,  just  as  a  company  looks  to  its  superintendent 
or  business  manager  for  economic  efficiency  and  industrial  results.  !N"o 
power  should  be  Avitlilield  from  the  superintendent  that  is  necessary  to 
his  own  highest  achievement,  for  his  success  is  the  success  of  the 
schools.  It  is  unfair  to  hold  him  responsible  for  the  work  that  is 
done  and  yet  allow  him  no  authority  in  the  certification  and  selection 
of  those  upon  whom  his  success  as  a  supervisor  most  depends.  He 
should  have  not  only  the  certificating  power  but  also  a  voice  in  the 
selection  of  the  teachers  that  are  to  work  under  him.  One  of  our  states 
perhaps  carries  this  idea  to  an  extreme,  giving  to  the  township  super- 
intendent the  power  both  to  examine  and  to  employ  teachers.  But  in 
general  it  may  be  laid  down  as  a  principle  in  school  administration  that 
the  certificating  function  should  be  closely  associated  with  the  super- 
visory function. 

It  may  be  said  also  that  the  certificating  power  is  likely  to  be  exer- 
cised by  the  superintendent  with  more  discrimination  .than  by  a  board 
of  education.  If  scholarship  were  the  only  necessary  qualification  of 
the  teacher  this  would  not  be  the  case,  for  a  board  is  an  impartial  and 
therefore  the  proper  instrument  for  determining  a  candidate's  scholar- 
ship. It  is  an  impartial  body  because  personal  considerations  do  not 
enter  as  a  factor  in  the  examination  of  an  applicant.  But  there  are 
other  qualifications  quite  as  important  as  scholarship.  They  are  the 
personality  of  the  candidate,  his  voice,  manner  and  nhvsical  condition; 
his  habits  of  life,  his  mental  balance,  his  ability  to  command  respect, 
and  all  those  peculiar  qualities  which  are  not  revealed  by  a  scholastic 
examination  but  which  are  essential  to  success  in  teaching.  There  must 
be  some  one  to  determine  these  qualifications  and  no  one  can  do  this 
better  than  the  superintendent.  He  should  have  the  power  to  reject 
an  applicant  for  a  certificate  no  matter  how  hio:h  the  scholarship  if  in 
his  own  iudgment  the  personality  of  such  applicant  unfits  him  for  the 
work  of  teaching. 

Furthermore,  it  is  desirable  that  for  every  certificate  issued,  renewed, 
suspended  or  revoked  there  be  some  one  person  who  can  be  held  re- 
sponsible., If  an  incompetent  person  is  granted  a  certificate  it  should 
be  impossible  for  the  sunerintendent  to  shift  the  blame  from  himself 
to  another  or  to  a  collective  and  therefore  more  or  less  indefinite  au- 
thority called  a  board  of  education.  The  superintendent  is  the  proper 
person  to  assume  the  responsibility  for  every  certificate  issued,  renewed, 
suspended  or  revoked. 


159 


Eecognition"  of  Xormal  School,  College  axd  University  Gradu- 
ates. 

It  is  almost  the  universal  practice  to  give  some  recognition  in  the 
matter  of  granting  certificates  to  those  candidates  who  have  had  a  normal 
school,  college  or  imiversit}^  training.  Only  eight  of  the  states  do  not 
authorize  normal  school  graduates  to  teach  without  subiecting  them  to 
an  examination.  The  rule  aDitarently  is  to  assume  not  only  that  they 
have  acquired  the  scholastic  qualifications  for  teaching,  but  that  they 
will  prove  to  be  successful  teachers,  for  they  are  gi-anted  the  privilege 
to  teach  without  examination,  sometimes  for  life,  and  usually  for  long 
periods.  It  seems  a  wise  educational  policy  to  permit  graduates  of 
normal  schools  or  colleges  who  have  specially  prepared  themselves  for 
the  work  of  teaching  at  least  to  show  their  fitness  to  teach  without  being 
subjected  to  an  examination.  A  certain  nualitv  and  quantity  of  prepar- 
ation should  be  recognized  in  the  granting  of  certificates,  whether  that 
preparation  is  made  in  a  normal  school,  a  college  or  a  university. 

The  following  tabular  statement  shows  the  recop-nition  to  normal 
school  and  college  gi-aduates  accorded  in  the  various  states : 


Table  Showing  Recognition  Given  to  Normal  School,  College  and  Uni- 
versity Graduates  in  the  Several  States. 


Arkansas. 


State.                                                                     Recognition. 

Holders  of  diplomas  issued  by  the  Board  of  Education  of 

the   normal   schools   are  eligible   to   teach  in   any   public 
school   of   tlie    territory 

A  diploma  issued  by  the  normal  school  board  is  equivalent 
to  a  professional  license  authorizing  the  holder  to  teach 
in  any  public  school  of  the  state  for  a  period  of  six 
years,  at  the  expiration  of  which  time  the  diploma  may 
136  converted  into  a  life  certificate 


California , 


A  normal  school  diploma  entitles  the  holder  to  a  certifi- 
cate corresponding  in  grade  to  the  grades  of  the  diploma 
from  any  county,  or  city  and  county  board  of  educa- 
tion in  the  state.  Graduates  of  the  state  university 
holding  a  normal  school  diploma  are  entitled  to  a  high 
school  certificate  authorizing  •  them  to  teach  in  any 
grammar  and  primary  and  In  any  high  school  in  the 
state 


Colorado. 


A  normal  school  diploma  entitles  the  holder  to  teach  in 
any  of  the  public  schools  of  the  state  when  a  certified 
copy  thereof  shall  have  been  filed  with  the  county 
superintendent  of  schools  in  the  county  wherein  such 
graduate  is  teaching  or  proposes  to  teach 


A  diploma  or  certificate  of  graduation  from  anv  respect- 

able   normal   school   or   college   entitles   the   holder  to   a 
certificate  to  teach  in  the  free  schools  for  one  year... 

160 


Table  Showing  Recognition  in  the  Scrcral  States — C'ontinued. 


state. 

Recognition. 

Klorida  

A  diploma  of  graduation  from  either  of  the  state  normal 

colleges  of  the  state  entitles  the  holder  to  a  first  grade 
certificate  without  examination 

Georgia 

No    recognition     

Idaho 

The  State  Board  of  Education  has  power  to  authorize  the 

county  superintendent  to  issue  teachers'  certificates  to 
graduates  of  state  normal  schools  and  to  graduates  of 
any  chartered  college  or  university  having  the  right 
to  grant  degrees,  providing  the  applicant  has  been 
successfully  engaged  in  teaching  for  at  least  twenty- 
seven  months.  Graduates  of  the  University  of  Idaho 
who  have  finished  the  two  years'  course  in  the  depart- 
ment of  pedagogy  or  have  taught  successfully  in  the 
public  schools  of  the  state  for  five  years  are  entitled 
to  a  state   teacher's   certificate 

Indiana 

After  two  years'  successful  teaching  normal  school  grad- 

uates may  receive  a  diploma  entitling  them  to  teach' 
in  any  of  the   schools  of  the  state 

Iowa 

state  university,  state  normal  schools,  and-  state  col- 
leges of  agriculture  and  mechanic  arts  and  from  other- 
institutions  of  higher  learning  in  the  state  having  reg- 
ular and  collegiate  courses  of  equal  rank  may  be  ac- 
cepted  as   evidence   of   scholarship  and  professional   fit- 

Kan  sas 

A  diploma  from  the  state  normal  school  serves  as  a  legal 

certificate  of  qualification  to  teach  in  the  common 
schools   of  the   state 

Kentucky 

A  diploma  from  the  A.  and  M.  College  of  Kentucky  confer- 

ring the  degree  of  bachelor  of  pedagogy  is  accepted  as 
evidence  of  qualification  to  teach  in  the  public  school^ 
of  Kentucky  during  the  life  time  of  the  holder  unl.ess 
he  or  she  shall  cease  to  teach  for  five  consecutive  years. 

Louisiana 

A  diploma  from  the  state  normal  school  entitles  the  holder 

to  a  first  grade  certificate  without  examination,  valTTl 
for  five  years,  and  to  a  degree  of  preference  in  the 
selection  of  teachers  for  the  public  schools 

Maine 

Certificates  issued  to  teachers  by  normal  principals  may 
be  rendered  valid  by  the  endorsement  of  the  town 
school    superintendents 

Maryland 


A  holder  of  a  diploma  of  a  respectable  college  or  the- 
state  normal  school  who  has  been  a  teacher  for  seven 
years  of  which  five  shall  have  been  spent  in  the  state 
of  Maryland  may  receive  a  life  certificate 


Massachusetts. 


Diplomas    granted    by    the    state    normal    schools   may    be- 
I     accepted    in    lieu    of   an    examination 


161 


Tabic  Sliowing  Recognition  in  the  Several  States — Continued. 


state. 


Recognition. 


Michigan 


Certiflcates  of  tlie  state  normal  schools  entitle  the  holder 
to  teach  in  any  of  the  schools  of  the  state  for  a  period 
of  five  years.  Graduation  from  the  University  of 
]\Ticliis;an  accompanied  by  a  teacher's  diploma  for  work 
done  in  the  university  in  the  science  and  the  art  of 
teaching:  serves  as  a  legal  certificate  of  qualification 
to  teach  in  any  of  the  schools  of  the  state 


North  Dakota. 


A  gradviate  of  the  normal  college  of  the  University  of 
North  Dakota  or  of  any  of  the  normal  schools  of  that 
state  who  has  had  nine  months  successful  experience 
as  a  teacher  after  graduation  may  be  granted  a  State 
certificate  good  for  five  years.  A  diploma  from  the 
normal  department  of  the  University  of  North  Dakota 
or  of  eitlier  of  the  normal  schools  of  the  state  is 
equivalent  to  a  state  certificate  good  for  three  years 
,  if  the  holder  has  attained  to  the  age  of  eighteen  years. 


Ohio. 


County  boards  of  school  examiners  may  make  their  own 
regulations  in  regard  to  granting  certiflcates  without 
formal  examinations  except  in  theory  and  practice 
of  teaching  and  in  the  science  of  education  to  grad- 
uates of  schools  for  the  training  of  teachers  providing 
at  least  a  two  years'  course  above  a  first  grade  high 
school  and  of  colleges  or  imiversities  providing  at 
least  a  four  years'  course  above  a  first  grade  high 
school.  Certificates  thus  granted  to  such  graduates 
may  be  issued  on  application  within  one  year  after 
graduation,  first  for  one  year,  and  at  their  expiration 
on  certain  evidence  of  success  in  teaching  for  a  longer 
term 


Oklahoma No    recognition. 


Oregon. 


Pennsylvania. 


Rhode  Island. 


Soutii  Carolina. 


Diplopias  from  the  regular  state  normal  schools  and 
from  any  other  normal  schools  in  the  state  providing  an 
equivalent  preparation  and  diplomas  from  any  char- 
tered institution  of  the  state  of  collegiate  or  university 
grade  granted  upon  the  completion  of  a  course  con- 
sisting of  at  least  five  years  work  above  the  eighth 
grade  are  equivalent  to  the  teaching  experience  re- 
quired for  a  state  certificate 


Certificates  of  graduation  in  any  of  the  normal  schools 
are  received  as  evidence  of  scholarship  in  every  part 
of  the  state  without  further  examination.  No  certi- 
ficates of  competence  in  the  practice  of  teaching  is 
issued  to  a  regular  graduate  of  any  of  the  normal 
schools  until  after  two  years  and  twa  successful  an- 
nual  terms  of  actual   teaching ► . 


Trustees  of  the  normal  school  or  a  committee  of  their 
board  may  examine  applicants  to  teach  in  the  public 
schools  and  give  certificates  to  such  as  are  found 
qualified 


A  diploma  from  any  chartered  college  or  university  of 
the  slate  or  from  Meminger  normal  school  of  Charles- 
ton authorizes  the  holder  to  teach  without  examination. 


—11  E  C 


162 


Table  Showing  Recognition  in   the  Several  States — Continued. 


State. 


Recognition. 


South  Dakota. 


A.  diplnma  from  any  normal  school  liaving  a  course  of 
study  in  wliich  at  least  one  year's  work  above  an 
approved  four  year  high  school  course  Is  required  may 
be  accepted  in  lieu  of  an  examination  in  the  subjects 
named.  Graduation  from  a  normal  school  and  evidence 
of  eighteen  months  successful  teaching  entitles  the  ap- 
plicant to  a  state  certificate 


Tennessee 

teach  in  any  county  in  the  state  without  further  ex- 
amination  

Texas 

the  Peabody  Normal  school  at  Nashville  ranks  as  a 
permanent  state  certificate.  A  diploma  conferred  by 
the  regents  of  the  University  of  Texas  has  the  force 
of  a  permanent  state  certificate.  A  certificate  issued 
by  the  school  of  pedagogy  to  students  completing  the 
junior  course  is  equivalent  to  a  state  certificate  of 
the  first  grade  for  a  period  of  two  years.  Graduates 
of  recognized  colleges  or  universities  who  have  taught 
for  a  period  of  not  less  than  three  years  in  Texas  may 
receive   a   permanent   state   certificate 

Utah 

Graduates  of  normal  training  schools  of  high  standards 
are  entitled  to  a  certificate  valid  for  two  years.  Nor- 
mal certificates  and  normal  diplomas  issued  by  the 
University  of  Utah  are  equivalent  to  state  -certificates 
and  the  holder  of  a  normal  diploma,  after  two  years' 
experience  in  teaching,  is  entitled  to  a  high  school 
diploma 

Vermont 

A  certificate  of  graduation  from  the  lower  course  of  a 
normal  school  in  this  state  is  a  license  to  teach  in 
the  public  schools  for  five  years,  and  a  certificate  of 
graduation  from  the  higher  course  is  a  license  to  teach 
in  the  public  schools  for  ten  years.  A  graduate  of  a 
normal  school  in  another  state  approved  by  the  super- 
intendent of  education  may  receive,  without  examina- 
tion, a  certificate  M  the  first  grade,  valid  for  five  years. 

Virgrinia 

Graduates    of    the    normal    schools,    of    the    University    of 

Virginia,  the  State  Female  Normal  School,  William  and 
Mary  College,  Virginia  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute 
and  the  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural  Institute  are 
entitled    to    a    professional    certificate    good    for    seven 

Washington 

A.    diploma    granted    bv    the    normal    department    of    the 

State  University  entitles  the  holder  to  teach  in  any 
public  school  in  the  state  during  life.  An  elementary 
normal  school  certificate  authorizes  the  holder  to  teach 
in  any  elementary  school  in  the  state  for  a  period  of 
two  years,  a  secondary  normal  school  certificate  five 
years  and  a  normal  school  diploma  five  years.  A  nor- 
mal diploma  and  evidence  of  two  years'  successful 
teaching  entitle   the  holder  to  a  life   certificate 

West  Virginia  . 


First  grade  certificates  are  issued  in  duplicates  to  grad- 
uates of  West  Virginia  University  who  have  taken'  at 
least  six  courses  in  education  and  to  graduates  in  the 
normal  departments  of  the  state  normal  school  and  its 
branches  and  to  graduates  of  the  normal  department 
of  the  West  Vii'ginia  Colored  Institute 


163 


Table  Showing  Recognition  in  the  Several  States — Concluded. 


Stite. 

Recognition.] 

Wisconsin 

Graduates  of  the  State  University  who  have  completed 
the  course  of  pedagogical  instruction  and  graduates  of 
the  state  normal  scliools  are  entitled  to  a  certificate 
grood  for  one  year.  After  one  year's  successful  teaching 
the  holder  of  a  university  or  normal  school  diploma  is 
entitled   to    an   unlimited    state    certificate,    good   for    a 

Wyoming 

Holders  of  diplomas  from  reputable  universities,  colleges 

and  normal  schools,  presenting  evidence  of  experience 
and  good  moral  character,  are  recommended  for  a 
second  grade  certificate.  Graduates  of  the  Wyoming 
State  University  on  whom  the  degree  of  B.  A.  or  B.  S. 
or  bachelor  of  pedagogy  or  B.  A.  in  education  has  been 
conferred  are  entitled  to  a  first  grade  certificate 

Uniform  Examixations. 

The  certificating  power  does  not  necessarily  imply  the  power  to 
examine  the  candidate  to  test  his  scholarship.  In  the  plan  proposed 
this  function  is  assigned  to  the  State  Board  of  Education.  The  exam- 
ination questions  should  be  prepared  by  the  State  Board  of  Education, 
or  under  its  direction,  should  be  uniform  throughout  the  State,  and 
all  examination  papers  should  be  graded  by  it  or  under  its  direction. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  important  features  of  the  proposed  certificating 
plan.  The  arguments  that  may  be  adduced  in  support  of  it  are  many 
and,  we  think,  incontrovertible. 

In  the  first  place  it  guarantees  complete  fairness  in  examinations. 
The  questions  for  all  applicants  are  identical.  No  personal  considera- 
tions affect  the  grading  of  papers.  Every  candidate  stands  squarely 
on  his  own  merits  so  far  as  his  scholarship  is  concerned.  If  he  fails 
he  can  not  blame  anyone  but  himself.  Thus  county  superintendents 
will  be  relieved  of  unfavorable  criticism  by  applicants  and  friends  of 
applicants  who  are  rejected  on  the  grounds  of  insufficient  scholarship. 
Superintendents  will  be  relieved  also  of  the  importunity  of  persons 
who,  though  lacking  in  scholarship,  endeavor  to  secure  a  certificate 
on  grounds  personal,  social  or  political.  In  Wisconsin  in  1900,  accord- 
ing to  returns  made  to  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  ninety 
per  cent  of  the  county  superintendents  were  unable  to  limit  the  issue 
of  certificates  to  thoroughly  qualified  applicants.*  It  is  not  so  bad  as 
that  in  Illinois,  but  there  are  few  superintendents  in  the  State  who 
have  not  been  embarrassed  by  this  kind  of  pressure. 

In  the  second  place  the  assumption  by  the  State  Board  of  Education 
of  the  work  of  preparing  examination  questions  and  grading  papers 
will  relieve  tJie  county  superintendent  of  schools  of  a  large  amount 
of  clerical  work,  and  thus  increase  his*  opportunity  for  effective  super- 
vision. The  average  number  of  days  employed  by  the  county  super- 
intendents of  Iowa  in  grading  papers  and   making  out  and  mailing 

•Wisconsin  School  Report,   1899-1900,  pp.  71-72. 


IG-f 

returns,  prior  to  the  passing  of  the  new  hiw  in  that  state  I'or  certi- 
ficating teachers,  was  fifty  days.*  In  Illinois  the  time  thus  consumed 
is  less  since  there  are  fewer  examinations  than  there  were  in  Iowa.  But 
it  is  considerable,  and  to  add  this  time  to  that  which  is  now  devoted  by 
the  superintendent  to  school  inspection  should  greatly  increase  the 
educational  efficiency  of  our  county  school  system. 

In  the  third  place  uniform  examinations  will  insure  inter-county 
recognition  of  certificates  and  thus  obviate  the  necessity  of  the  teacher's 
passing  an  examination  everv^  time  a  county  line  is  crossed.  At  present 
there  are  102  county  examining  authorities  in  the  State.  Consequently 
there  are  102  standards  and  modes  of  testing  the  fitness  of  candidates. 
It  is  to  be  expected  that  the  examination  questions  in  different  counties 
would  not  be  calculated  to  test  equally  the  applicant's  scholarship  and 
that  the  markings  of  examination  papers  M-ould  not  be  uniform.  Hence 
inter-county  recog-nition  is  impossible  under  the  present  system.  But 
under  the  proposed  plan  there  would  be  but  one  examining  authority 
in  the  matter  of  scholarship  and  the  only  ground  for  the  refusal  of 
a  county  superintendent  to  recognize  a  certificate  from  another  county 
would  be  lack  of  personal  fitness  of  the  candidate  and  of  course  that 
would  not  be  acted  upon  except  in  individual  cases.  The  proposed  plan, 
therefore,  gives  us  what  at  jaresent  we  do  not  have,  namely,  a  State 
certificating  system.  There  can  be  no  system  with  102  different  county 
certificating  authorities. 

This  point  that  the  State  Board  of  Education  should  grade  the  papers 
of  applicants  for  certificates  as  well  as  prepare  the  questions  for  examin- 
ations is  of  such 'importance  that  it  deserves  further  emphasis.  Min- 
nesota and  South  Dakota  tried  the  plan  of  leaving  the  gi-ading  of  paper 
with  the  county  superintendents,  but  were  obliged  to  give  it  up.  If  the 
State  Board  of  Education  should  merely  prepare  the  examination  ques- 
tions and  leave  the  grading  of  the  papers  to  the  county  superintendent 
it  is  obvious  that  there  could  not  be  or  would  not  be  general  inter-county 
recognition  of  certificates.  One  county  superintendent  would  not  ac- 
cept the  grading  of  another  county  superintendent.  But  the  principle 
of  inter-county  recognition  is  fundamental.  If  it  were  necessary  for  the 
county  superintendent  to  surrender  an  important  prerogative  in  order  to- 
secure  the  operation  of  this  principle,  the  advantages  that  would  accrue 
to  the  school  system  are  sufficiently  great  to  warrant  such  surrender. 
But  the  really  important  power,  the  certificating  power,  should  not  be 
withdrawn  from  the  county  superintendent.  He  should  merely  be  re- 
lieved of  the  task  of  testing  the  applicant's  scholarship. 

It  is  easy  to  exaggerate  the  importance  to  the  superintendent  of  the 
power  to  grade  the  papers  of  an  applicant  for  a  certificate.  It  has  been 
held  that  it  serves  three  purposes:  First,  it  enables  the  county  superin- 
tendent to  judge  the  applicant  more  accurately  than  he  otherwise 
could;  second,  it  gives  the  superintendent  power  to  keep  out  of  his 
corps  of  teachers  anybody  he  has  a  mind. to  keep  out,  simply  by  in- 
creasing the  strictness  of  his  grading;  third,  it  is  a  means  of  maintain- 
ing the  authority  of  the  county  superintemlent  over  his  teachers. 

♦Iowa  School  Report,   1904-5,  p.   149. 


165 

As  to  the  first  point  it  may  be  said  that  the  estimate  of  the  county 
superintendent  is  formed  not  by  grading  the  papers  of  the  applicant 
but  by  reading  them  and  this  privilege  is  not  withheld  from  him  by 
the  proposed  plan.  He  may  read  the  papers.  If  the  superintendent 
should  be  in  doubt  as  to  the  personal  fitness  of  an  applicant  he  ought 
indeed  to  read  his  papers  and  take  into  account  his  style  and  method 
and  the  general  appearance  of  the  papers  as  to  form  and  neatness  in  ar- 
riving at  his  final  judgment.  The  opportunity  to  do  so  is  left  with  the 
county  superintendent  and  therefore  it  can  not  be  rightly  claimed  that 
the  proposed  plan  deprives  him  of  any  basis  or  means  of  judging  an  ap- 
jplicant  which  is  now  in  his  possession. 

As  to  the  shutting  out  of  undesirable  candidates  it  is  difficult  to  see 
Jiow  the  grading  of  an  applicant's  answers  to  questions  set  by  the 
State  Board  of  Education  could  be  made  to  serve  that  purpose  without 
injustice  to  the  applicant.  If  he  fails  to  pass  the  scholarship  test  he 
excludes  himself,  if  his  scholarship  is  up  to  the  standard  it  would  be 
unfair  to  reject  him  on  the  ground  that  he  failed  in  the  examination. 
If  he  is  rejected  at  all  it  should  be  done  frankly  on  the  ground  that  he 
lacks  the  necessary  personal  qualifications.  It  is  doubtless  an  unpleas- 
ant duty  to  tell  the  person  who  applies  for  a  certificate  and  passes  the 
scholarship  test  that  the  certificate  is  refused  him  on  the  ground  of  his 
lack  of  personal  fitness  to  teach,  and  it  may  be  that  for  that  reason 
under  the  proposed  plan  incompetency  seeking  entrance  to  the  schools 
will  not  always  meet  with*  a  determined  resistance.  Nevertheless,  as 
all  will  agrecj  the  duty  of  the  county  superintendent  to  the  children 
of  his  county  is  perfectly  j^lain.  It  is  to  reject  incompetency.  This  is 
a  duty  which  should  not  be  shirked  and  to  the  imposition  of  which 
no  really  valid  objection  can  be  ofllered. 

Finally,  as  to  the  maintenance  of  the  superintendent's  authority,  it 
may  be  true  that  when  a  certain  kind  of  teacher  feels  that  he  is  entirely 
dependent  upon  the  county  superintendent  for  his  grades  and  his  certi- 
cate  the  authority  of  the  county  superintendent  is  more  instantly  and 
pemumently  recognized.  But  authority  resting  on  this  foundation  and 
maintained  in  this  manner  is  not  of  the  kind  coveted  by  thoughtful 
superintendents.  There  are  other  and  better  means  of  maintaining 
authority  and  establishing  leadership.  According  to  the  proposed  plan 
no  certificate  is  renewable  unless  the  holder  gives  evidence  of  profes- 
sional progress.  If,  therefore,  a  teacher  absents  himself  from  the  insti- 
tute or  refuses  to  carry  out  the  instructions  of  the  county  superintendent 
with  reference  to  professional  study  or  declines  to  obey  any  just  regula- 
tions the  superintendent  may  refuse  absolutely  to  renew  his  certificate. 
By  the  proposed  plan  he  is  even  required  to  do  so,  and  may  not  only 
compel  such  an  offender  to  take  an  examination  but  may  refuse  him 
permission  to  teach  altogether  .  What  further  power  could  the  superin- 
tendent rightly  desire? 

The  advantages  of  a  uniform  State  system  of  examinations  for 
teacheiV  certificates  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

1.  The  State  system  is  more  widely  systematic  and  consequently  more 
•economical  to  the  State  from  a  financial  standpoint. 


166      • 

2.  It  tends  to  equalize  the  educational  conditions  of  the  different  parts 
of  the  State  by  raising  them  to  a  higher  level.  The  opportuniy  it  extends  to 
compare  the  qualifications  possessed  by  teachers  in  different  parts  of  the 
State  will  naturally  tend  to  the  promotion  of  school  interests  in  localities 
which  under  the  county  system  are  backward. 

3.  It  tends  to  the  development  of  a  uniform  minimum  of  qualifications 
among  teachers  throughout  the  State. 

•4.  It  has  been  highly  successful  in  the  states  which  have  adopted  it,  as 
the  commission  has  ascertained  by  corresponding  with  the  state  and  county 
superintendents  of  those  states. 

5.  It  relieves  the  county  superintendent  of  much  office  work  and  thus 
gives  him  more  time  for  visiting  and  supervising  schools.  It  thus  strength- 
ens him  in  the  exercise  of  his  most  important  function. 

6.  It  confines  the  issuing  of  certificates  to  those  who  are  declared  by  the 
State  Board  of  Education  to  be  scholastically  qualified  to  receive  them,  and 
thus  relieves  the  county  superintendent  of  the  necessity  of  struggling 
against  or  yielding  to  social  and  political  pressure  in  the  matter  of  granting 
certificates. 

7.  It  places  the  determination  of  the  scholastic  qualifications  of  all  appli- 
cants for  certificates  in  the  hands  of  an  impartial  board,  strangers  to  such 
applicants. 

8.  It  leaves  the  matter  of  determining  pei'sonal  qualifications  other  than 
scholarship  to  him  who  has  the  best  opportunity  to  determine  such  qualifi- 
cations, namely,  the  superintendent  of  schools. 

9.  It  places  definitely  the  responsibility  for  granting  or  refusing  to  grant 
a  certificate. 

10.  It  forestalls  the  possible  exercise  of  the  certificating  power  for  un- 
worthy ends,  as,  for  instance,  to  reward  political  friends. 

11.  It  encourages  academic  and  professional  training  for  the  work  of 
teaching  by  placing  a  definite  premium  upon  such  training. 

12.  It  relieves  the  teachers  of  the  continual  fear  of  examinations  and  the 
continuous  necessity  of  preparing  for  them,  while  at  the  same  time  holding 
them  to  strict  account  in  the  matter  of  personal  culture  and  professional 
progress. 

13.  It  practically  guarantees  the  intercounty  recognition  of  certificates 
and  thus  tends  to  give  mobility  to  the  teaching  force,  enabling  teachers  to 
go  from  a  place  in  which  they  are  numerous,  to  those  places  in  which  they 
are  scarce  without  subjecting  them  to  the  trouble  and  expense  of  additional 
examinations. 

14.  It  offers  special  encouragement  to  those  who  are  or  expect  to  become 
professional  school  superintendents. 

15.  Finally,  it  tends  to  give  a  dignity  to  the  calling  of  the  teacher  which 
will  be  instrumental  in  inducing  ambitious  young  men  and  women  to  choose 
it  for  their  life's  work. 

The  Experience  of  Other  States  with  Uniform  Examinations. 

The  most  convincing  argument  in  favor  of  the  adoption  of  the  plan 
of  certification  proposed  by  the  commission  is  perhaps  the  invariably 
successful  experience  of  other  states  with  the  unifonn  system.  This 
experience  amounts  practically  to  a  demonstration  that  the  plan  would 
operate  successfully  in  Illinois.  Fifteen  states  already  require  that 
all  examination  questions  be  prepared  and  all  examination  papers  be 
graded  either  by  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  or  by  a  state 
board.  Inquiry  has  been  made  of  the  superintendents  of  these  states 
in  regard  to  how  this  system  has  worked.  Without  a  single  exception 
they  have  asserted  its  superiority  over  the  county  system.  The  follow- 
ing are  extracts  from  some  of  the  letters  received: 


1G7 

Minnesota. — "Prior  to  1899  the  examination  questions  in  this  state  were 
uniform.  They  were  prepared  by  a  committee  of  county  superintendents  and 
generally  used  throughout  the  state,  but  each  county  superintendent  hart 
his  own  standard  of  marking  and  was  the  sole  judge  of  the  fitness  of  candi- 
dates for  certificates.  Since  then  the  system  has  been  in  vogue  under  whica 
the  State  Superintendent's  office  prepares  the  questions,  designates  the  time 
when  the  examinations  must  be  held  and  examines  the  manuscripts  submitted 
by  teachers.  There  is  no  difference  of  opinion  among  educators  in  Minne- 
sota as  to  the  great  advantages  of  the  present  system  over  the  old  one.  It 
has  resulted  in  I'aising  the  standard  of  requirements  for  teachers,  has  given 
the  state  a  much  better  qualified  force  than  it  had  before.  Many  of  our 
county  superintendents,  being  elected  by  small  majorities,  were,  under  the 
old  system,  subjected  to  severe  pressure  to  issue  certificates  to  those  not  quali- 
fied, and  too  often  they  yielded  to  this  pressure,  which,  in  many  counties  re- 
sulted in  having  a  majority  of  teachers  of  very  inferior  grade.  The  State 
Superintendent's  office,  of  course,  is  so  far  removed  from  local  pressure  that  it 
is  not  in  any  way  affected  by  it.  The  county  superintendents  are  very  glad 
to  be  relieved  of  the  responsibility  of  passing  upon  the  academic  applica- 
tions of  applicants  for  certificates.  I  do  not  know  of  one  who  is  in  favor  of 
repealing  the  present  law  and  returning  to  the  old  system.  I  believe  that 
some  system  of  state  uniformity  and  of  examinations  by  a  state  board  is  de- 
sirable for  every  commonwealth  in  the  union." — J.  W.  Olsen,  Superinten- 
dent of  Public  Instruction. 

New  York. — "Up  to  1887  we  had  no  uniform  basis  for  teachers'  certificates 
in  this  state.  Local  commissioners  or  superintendents  licensed  whomsoever 
they  saw  fit,  and  it  must  be  admitted  that  they  saw  fit  to  license  a  great 
many  v>'ho  were  not  deserving.  The  thing  was  much  influenced  by  politics 
and  often  teachers'  certificates  were  given  in  consideration  of  political  sup- 
port. In  1887  we  established  a  uniform  system  of  teachers'  examinations, 
which  has  been  perfected  from  time  to  time  until  now.  It  is  as  thoroughly 
established  in  the  educational  policy  of  the  state  as  anything  can  be.  It  has 
always  commanded  confidence  and  wide  acceptation.  It  has  advanced  the 
average  qualifications  of  teachers  very  materially,  and,  as  it  has  limited 
the  number  holding  teachers'  certificates,  it  has  operated  to  lessen  competi- 
tion for  positions  and  thereby  to  advance  wages." — A.  S.  Draper,  Commis- 
sioner of  Education. 

Alabama. — "Previous  to  1899  the  several  counties  in  this  state  conducted 
their  own  examinations  through  a  county  board  of  education.  Nearly  as 
many  standards  obtained  as  we  have  counties.  In  some  counties  but  little 
care  appeared  to  be  exercised  at  times  in  the  work  of  conducting  the  so- 
called  examinations.  Nine  years  ago  the  legislature  of  this  state  enacted  a 
law  requiring  teachers,  who  receive  any  of  the  general  school  fund,  to  hold 
a  certificate  granted  by  a  state  board  of  examiners.  *  *  *This  law  has 
proved  one  of  the  most  popular  and  beneficial  of  all  the  legislative  enact- 
ments touching  schools  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century.  The  standard 
of  teachers  has  been  gradually  raised,  a  uniformity  exists  throughout  the 
state,  the  work  of  teaching  is  being  recognized  as  a  real  profession,  the  in- 
creased efliiciency  of  tlie  public  school  system  is  everywhere  apparent,  ineffi- 
cient teachers  in  the  olden  time  have  entered  upon  other  means  of  obtain- 
ing a  livelihood,  and  there  is  a  general  uplift  and  awakening  among  our 
people  in  all  matters  educational." — Harry  C.  Guxxeix,  Superintendent  of 
Education. 

Xebraska. — "The  uniform  system  of  examination  has  been  in  operation 
in  Nebraska  for  nearly  three  years.  We  find  the  system  working  with  rea- 
sonable satisfaction.  There  is  a  marked  improvement  in  the  ability  of  the 
teachers  of  the  state  already  manifest.  You  will  readily  perceive  by  a  study 
of  the  rules  governing  the  examination  that  our  system  is  absolutely  im- 
partial and  impersonal.  Candidates  taking  the  examination  are  placed 
solely  on  their  merit.  The  markers  have  no  way  of  knowing  whose  papers 
they  are  working  upon.  I  can  see  nothing  in  the  way  of  such  a  system  be- 
ing carried  on  successfully  in  Illinois.     Mail  and  express  facilities  are  even 


1G8 

better  in  Illiuois  than  in  Nebraska.  We  experience  no  difficulty  and  prac- 
tically no  delay  in  the  transmission  of  answer  papers,  examination  reports 
and  questions.  Your  state  v>'ould  experience  even  less  inconvenience  along 
these  lines  than  Nebraska." — J.  L.  McBrikx,  Superintendent. 

South  Dakota. — "Prior  to  1903  all  examination  questions  were  made  out 
by  the  state  department  for  all  grades  of  certificates.  The  manuscript  was 
marked  by  the  state  department  for  life  diplomas  and  state  certificates. 
First  grade  manuscript  was  marked  by  the  county  superintendent  and  re- 
viewed by  the  state  superintendent.  In  1903  a  change  was  made,  requiring 
the  state  department  to  mark  manuscripts  for  first  and  second  grade  certi- 
cates  and  in  1907  a  further  change  was  made  requiring  the  state  department 
to  mark  all  raanuscripis,  giving  the  county  superintendent  authority  on  his 
own  examination  to  issue  temporary  certificates  valid  no  longer  than  till 
the  time  of  the  next  regular  examination.  For  the  welfare  of  schools  and 
the  encouragement  of  teachers  to  do  thorough  preparation  this  system  is 
excellent.  It  removes  the  marking  of  manuscripts  to  disinterested  parties 
and  avoids  the  local,  political  and  social  pressure  sometimes  brought  to  bear 
under  the  systems  where  the  manuscript  is  marked  by  the  county  superin- 
tendent. It  is  the  fairest  system  that  can  be  devised  to  the  school  children." 
H.  A.  UsTRUD,  Superintendent,  South  Dakota. 

South  Dakota. — "I  am  convinced  that  so  far  as  this  state  is  concerned 
(the  uniform  certification  plan)  has  affected  a  vertiable  revolution  during 
its  brief  history.  The  examinations  thus  far  held  have  conclusively  proven 
the  progressiveness  and  elevating  influences  of  the  law.  To  my  mind,  state 
certification  dignifies  the  profession  of  teaching,  places  every  candidate  en- 
tirely upon  his  merits,  destroys  all  possibility  of  favoritism,  and  gives  to 
the  worthy  teacher  a  credential  in  which  he  may  take  pride." — G.  W.  Nash, 
Ex-State  Superintendent. 

Arizona. — "This  system  does  away  v/ith  so  many  irregularities  in  the  con- 
duct of  the  examinations,  and  at  the  same  time  secures  to  the  teacher  a 
credential  that  relieves  her  of  the  loss  of  time  and  annoyance,  in  taking 
examinations,  whenever  she  removes  from  one  county  to  another,  that  a  re- 
turn to  the  old  county  system  of  certification  would  be  universally  opposed 
both  by  teachers  and  school  ofllcers.  It  seems  to  me  that  a  mere  statement 
of  the  system  ought  to  convince  anyone  of  its  advantages  and  superiority 
over  the  county  system,  without  any  argument  whatever." — R.  L.  Long. 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

Wyoming. — -"Under  the  old  plan  of  county  superintendents  giving  the  ex- 
aminations and  grading  the  papers,  it  was  impossible  to  have  the  questions 
in  the  same  subjects  equally  comprehensive.  And  as  the  different  superin- 
tendents were  so  unequally  qualified,  the  papers  were  not  graded  on  a  uni- 
form basis.  It  can  be  readily  seen  that  the  questions  given  by  one  superin- 
tendent might  be  more  difficult  and  the  papers  more  closely  marked  than 
would  be  done  by  another  superintendent.  The  boaru  of  examiners  are  ac- 
quainted with  but  a  very  small  percentage  of  applicants  and  the  papers  are 
thus  marked  entirely  on  merit.  *  *  *  I  believe  this  system  could  be  adopt- 
ed in  a  state  as  large  as  Illinois  to  great  advantage.  It  is  my  opinion  that 
the  greater  the  number  of  persons  through  whom  certificates  are  issued  the 
less  uniform  they  are,  and  though  Wyoming  has  but  thirteen  county  super- 
intendents, we  find  this  system  vastly  more  satisfactory  than  any  other 
which  has  been  adopted.  I  sincerely  hope  your  state  may  see  fit  to  adopt 
this  method  of  certification,  for  I  feel  sure  it  will  prove  satisfactory  t6  all 
educational  workers." — A.  D.  Cook,  State  Superintendent. 

North  Dakota. — "Our  present  examination  law  is  reasonably  satisfactory, 
so  far  as  it  applies  to  count}'*  superintendents.  The  questions  are  prepared 
under  the  direction  of  the  state  superintendent  and  he  appoints  the  persons 
who  read  and  mark  the  examination  papers  written  by  the  applicants.  This 
obviates,  to  a  great  extent,  favoritism  and  the  bringing  of  pressure  to  bear 
upon  the  examiner  by  parties  interested.  It  makes  one  standard  for  the  en- 
tire state,  which  is  something  desirable." — W.  L.  Stockwell,  Superintendent. 


169 

To  these  extraets  may  be  added  a  statement  from  the  hist  report 
(page  25)  of  lion.  J.  D.  Eggleston,  Jr.,  superintlndent  of  public  in- 
stniction,  Virginia,  and  also  a  paragraph  from  a  p^er  by  State  Super- 
intendent Thos.  C.  Miller,  of  West  Virginia,  read  before  the  depart- 
ment of  superintendence  in  Louisville  in  1906.  Superintendent  Eggles- 
ton  says:  "The  state  should  not  go  back  to  the  former  method  of  per- 
mitting the  local  superintendents  to  examine  and  grade  the  papers  for 
their  several  divisions.  This  would  be  to  make  again  more  than  100 
different  standards  by  which  teachers  would  be  graded.  The  present 
method  of  having  a  central  board  to  issue  uniform  questions  and  grade 
all  papers  comes  as  near  to  being  an  ideal  plan  as  any  that  has  yet 
been  devised.''  Superintendent  Miller's  paper  is  a  discussion  of  the 
question  of  minimum  salaries  for  teachers.  In  it  he  said :  "But  a  more 
potent  influence  on  salaries  for  teachers  is  the  uniform  examination 
system  provided  for  early  in  1903.  Like  a  thunderclap  came  this  new 
law,  and  at  first  there  was  almost  consternation  in  the  teaching  ranks; 
but  now  the  system  is  viewed  as  having  wrought  the  greatest  amount  of 
good  in  the  shortest  period  of  time  that  any  educational  measure  has 
ever  produced  in  the  state.  The  certificates  issued  by  the  state  superin- 
tendent are  valid  in  any  county,  and  this  new  measure  has,  without 
doubt,  had  more  effect  in  increasing  salaries  than  the  minimum  wage 
law  itself.  Boards  of  education,  in  order  to  retain  the  best  teachers, 
have  been  compelled  to  advance  salaries,  and  there  is  considerable  com- 
petition, not  only  between  counties,  but  between  magisterial  districts 
in  the  same  county,  for  the  services  of  the  more  competent  instructors. 
It  is  ti-ue  that  districts  with  less  material  development  and  scant  finan- 
cial resources  may  for  a  time  seem  to  be  at  a  disadvantage,  but  the  effect 
of  the  uniform  examination  system  has  been  to  increase  teachers'  sal- 
aries very  materially,  and  it  is  now  almost  iiniversally  commended.  Of 
course,  there  are  many  other  features  of  this  new  system  that  are  recog- 
nized as  having  wrought  much  for  our  educational  upbuilding,  but  we 
do  not  underestimate  the  influence  of  the  uniform  examinations  in  ad- 
vancing teachers'  wages." 

An  inquiry  concerning  the  state  system  of  examining  teachers  as 
compared  with  the  county  system  was  also  sent  to  county  superin- 
tendents in  different  states.  The  replies  have  been  invariably  favorable 
to  the  state  system.  The  following  are  extracts  from  a  few  letters 
received : 

"No  county  system  of  granting  certificates  can  do  justice  to  the  teachers 
certified.  Personal  interests  will  creep  in.  The  system  now  in  use  in  New 
York  weeds  out  the  poor  scholar  but  not  always  the  poor  teacher.  However, 
with  a  state  board  grading  the  answer  papers  and  a  competent  board  cf 
inspectors  it  is  possible  to  have  teachers  of  ability  both  as  to  education  and 
as  to  ability  to  instruct.  This  v>'e  are  beginning  to  have  in  New  York  state." 
— PuATT  E.  Marshall,  Covi.  First  Chautauqua  District,  Sherman,  K.  Y. 

"Responding  to  your  circular  of  July  9th,  I  would  say  first,  that  in  general 
I  prefer  the  state  uniform  system  to  any  of  the  various  county  systems  for 
the  examination  and  certification  of  teachers.  This  conclusion  has  been 
reached  after  personal  experience  with  the  systems  in  vogue  in  Kansas, 
North  Dakota,  Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia,  and  after  a  careful  study  of 
the  matter,  as  chairman  of  the  committee  on  education  in  the  House  of  Del- 
egates, which  passed  our  present  uniform  law.     In  my  judgment,  the  state 


170 

system  is  preferable,  first,  because  of  its  advantages  to  the  teachers.  By  it 
the  teacher  has  a  standing  throughout  the  state  and  the  way  is  open  before 
him  for  a  broader  view  of  educational  interests.  The  consequent  wider 
exchange  of  teachers  and  school  ideas  is  a  healthful  stimulation  to  better 
work.  Second,  the  state  system  is  preferable  because  it  prevents  the  un- 
wise lowering  of  standards  that  always  occurs  in  more  or  fewer  instances 
under  the  county  system.  This  system  also  takes  the  examinations  and 
granting  of  certificates  further  out  of  the  reach  of  political  or  other  local 
influences." — M.  P.  Siiawkey,  County  Siiperintenclent  and  Editor  West  YiT 
ginia  Educator,  Charleston,  W.  Ya. 

'"The  present  system  of  having  the  questions  made  out.  and  the  papers 
corrected  by  the  state  committee  is  entirely  satisfactory.  The  uniformity 
thus  brought  about  has  raised  the  standard  of  the  teaching  profession  and 
stimulated  effort  throughout  the  whole  educational  system.  We  would  not 
willingly  go  back  to  the  old  w^ay." — Makgaket  E.  Brown,  County^  Superin- 
tendent.  Grand  Island,  Nebraska. 

"As  county  superintendent  of  schools  of  this  county  I  have  worked  under 
the  system  of  examinations  by  this  office  and  am  now  working  under  the 
new  plan  of  examinations  by  the  state.  Results  prove  conclusively  that  the 
present  system  gets  better  results  in  the  school  room." — W.  F.  Lorix,  Coimty 
Superintendent,  Mandan,  Tsforth  Dakota. 

"In  reply  to  yours  of  the  9th  asking  my  opinion  of  the  present  system  of 
certification  in  this  state,  I  am  glad  to  say  that  I  think  it  a  very  marked 
improvement  over  the  one  that  Avas  formerly  in  use  here.  Making  the  mark- 
ing of  the  papers  an  impersonal  matter,  then  asking  the  county  superinten- 
dent for  his  personal  estimate  of  the  applicant's  ability  to  teach,  seems  to 
me  about  as  satisfactory  a  way  to  deal  with  would-be  teachers  as  can  be 
practiced  at  present.  In  the  interests  of  progress  and  uniformity,  I  hope 
your  state  will  adopt  a  system  similar  to  ours." — A.  H.  Seymour,  County  Su- 
perintendent, Be  Smet,  S.  D. 

"In  my  opinion  our  present  system  of  conducting  examinations,  grading 
papers  and  issuing  certificates  through  a  state  board  of  examiners  super- 
vised by  the  state  board  of  education  is  vastly  superior  to  our  old  method, 
similar  to  the  one  now  in  use  in  your  state." — C.  A.  Hardwick,  Dis.  Supt. 
Schools,  Giles  Co.,  Ya. 

"There  is  hardly  a  teacher  in  the  state  who  would  like  to  revert  to  the 
old  system  of  examination  by  questions  prepared  and  graded  by  the  county 
superintendent.  This  system  has  culled  out  the  incompetent  teachers,  thus 
causing  a  scarcity  of  teachers  throughout  the  state,  hence  an  increase  of 
wages  and  better  teachers.  Certificates  granted  under  this  system  are  valid 
throughout  the  state,  hence  doing  away  with  the  necessity  of  teachers  tak- 
ing the  examination  in  different  counties.  Salaries  have  increased  from  a 
minimum  of  $28.00  to  $40.00  for  first  grade  certificates  and  other  grades  in 
proportion.  Taken  as  a  whole  this  system  is  building  up  the  schools  of 
West  Virginia  rapidly  and  is  a  step  far  in  advance  of  the  old  system  of 
county  examination." — Willis  F.  Evans,  County  Siipt.,  Berkley  Co.,  Martins- 
burg,  W.  Ya. 

The  Certification  of  Teachers  ix  Iowa. 

The  experience  of  Iowa  is  of  sufficient  importance  to  justify  a  sepa- 
rate, discussion.  In  Iowa,  until  recently,  a  state  board  of  examiners 
consisting  of  five  persons  issued,  on  examination,  state  diplomas,  state 
certificates  and  special  certificates.  County  superintendents,  on  ex- 
aminations conducted  by  themselves  and  for  which  they  prepared  the 
questions,  issued  county  certificates  of  two  grades,  good  only  in  the 
county.  The  county  superintendent  had  no  power  to  endorse  certifi- 
cates from  another  county  or  to  renew  a  certificate  issued  by  himself. 


in 

Two  years  ago  a  new  plan  was  adopted.  Under  this  new  plan  the 
state  educational  board  of  examiners  issues  all  certificates,  county  as 
well  as  state.  County  examinations  are  conducted  by  the  county  su- 
perintendents on  questions  .provided  by  the  state  educational  board 
of  examiners.  At  the  completion  of  a  county  examination  the  county 
superintendent  forwards  to  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction 
a  list  of  all  applicants  examined,  with  the  standings  of  each  in  didactics 
and  oral  reading,  as  determined  by  him,  and  his  estimate  of  each  ap- 
plicant's personality  and  general  fitness,  other  than  scholarship,  for  the 
work  of  teaching.  He  forwards  also  the  answer  papers  of  the  appli- 
cants with  the  exception  of  those  in  didactics.  These  papers  are 
graded  under  the  direction  of  the  board  and  the  results  are  entered 
upon  a  certificate  provided  by  the  board,  which  certificate  is  trans- 
mitted to  the  county  superintendent  of  the  county  in  which  the  appli- 
cant resides  for  delivery  to  him.  No  certificate  is  good  in  a  county 
until  it  is  registered  with  the  county  superintendent  of  that  county. 
The  registration  fee  is  one  dollar.  A  certificate  may,  of  course,  be  vali- 
dated in  any  county  by  registration  in  that  count}^ 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  Iowa  plan  is  essentially  the  same  as  that 
here  proposed  so  far  as  uniformity  of  examinations  is  concerned.  The 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Hon.  John  F.  Eiggs,  writes  that, 
•'When  the  system  was  first  inaugurated  there  was  much  criticism 
from  persons  who  were  not  able  to  successfully  pass  the  examinations, 
and  from  others  who  were  not  sufificiently  informed.  The  newspaper 
criticism  that  was  rife  last  summer  and  fall  has  subsided  and  it  is  safe 
to  say  the  battle  has  been  fought  and  won  in  Iowa.  With  a  separate 
standard  in  every  county  it  is  absolutely  impossible  to  have  anything 
approaching  uniformity  in  the  matter  of  licensing  teachers,  and  the 
result  is  that  a  certificate  issued  in  the  one  countv'  can  not'  safely  be  ac- 
cepted in  another."  Inasmuch  as  the  change  in  Iowa  is  recent  and  con- 
sequently ihe  contrast  between  the  workings  of  the  old  plan  and  the 
new  is  still  vivid  in  the  minds  of  the  county  superintendents,  it  was 
thought  that  it  would  be  especially  interesting  and  informative  to  secure 
from  the  coimty  superintendents  from  that  state  their  opinions  in 
reirard  to  the  law  after  it  has  had  two  years'  trial.  Accordingly  a  list 
of  questions  bearing  upon  the  merit  and  workings  of  the  new  law  was 
sent  to  each  of  the  county  superintendents  of  the  state.  Of  the  ninety- 
nine  connty  superintendents  in  Iowa,  cishtv-one  replied. 

The  questions  presented  were  as  follows : 

1.  Do  yon  regard  the  present  method  of  certification  as  superior  to  the 
former  method? 

2.  Has  the  change  in  the  method  of  certification  strengthened  or  v>'eak- 
ened  the  connty  superintendent  in  his  work  of  supervising  schools? 

3.  Has  the  new  law  reduced  or  increased  the  annoyances  of  the  county 
superintendent? 

4.  Has  the  new-  law  affected  favorably  or  unfavorably  the  standing  of 
the  county  superintendent  as  a  school  officer? 

5.  Does  the  new  lav/,  in  your  opinion,  tend  to  raise  the  standard  of  the 
teaching  force? 

6.  Is  the  new  law  more  or  less  satisfactory  than  the  old  law  to  the 
teachers  themselves? 


172 

The  replies  to  these  questions  show  that  so  far  as  the  Iowa  superin- 
tendents are  concerned  they  are  almost  unanimous  in  support  of  the 
law.  To  the  first  question,  "Do  you  regard  the  present  method  of  cer- 
tification as  superior  to  the  former  method?"  seventy-three  answer 
3^es,  many  of  them  adding  some  emphatic  expression  of  opinion  as 
"decidedly,"  "very  much  superior,"  "far  superior,"  "most  emphatically," 
"'''there  can  he  no  question  about  it,"  "most  assuredly,"  "indeed  I  do," 
and  the  like.  The  following  is  characteristic:  "Our  law  is  splendid. 
I  have  worked  under  the  old  way,  too.  I  know  personally  that  our 
present  method  is  much  to  be  preferred."  One  superintendent  de- 
clares "it  has  increased  the  professional  interest  of  my  teachers  about 
fifty  per  cent  for  the  first  year.  Our  schools  are  in  better  shape,  due 
to  the  new  law."  Eight  superintendents  are  doubtful  in  regard  to  the 
superiority  of  the  law,  or  think  it  has  not  had  time  to  prove  that  it  is 
superior.  Some  of  these  express  the  conviction  that  time  will  prove 
its  superiority. 

To  the  second  question,  "Has  the  change  in  the  method  of  certifica- 
tion strengthened  or  weakened  the  county  superintendent?"  fourteen 
superintendents  answer  that  it  is  too  early  to  determine  whether  it  has 
or  not.  Nine  think  the  superintendent  has  been  weakened  because  he 
has  been  deprived  of  the  certificating  power.  Fifty-five,  however,  an- 
swer that  the  new  law  has  strengthened  the  county  superintendent  by 
making  it  possible  for  him  to  spend  more  time  in  visiting  schools 
and  conducting  teachers'  meetings.  His  power  as  a  supervisor  is 
strengthened.  One  declares,  "It  has  strengthened  the  real  superintend- 
ent and  probably  weakened  the  mere  politician."  Another  says,  "It  has 
strengthened  his  power  unless  he  be  a  driver  rather  than  a  leader." 

As  to  whether  the  new  law  has  reduced  or  increased  the  anno3^ances 
of  the  county  superintendent  (the  third  question),  nine  answer  that 
no  change  has  been  noticed.  Sixteen  think  their  annoyances  are  in- 
creased, and  fifty-four  say  that  the  law  has  resulted  in  a  reduction  of 
the  annoyances  of  the  county  superintendent.  "In  time  it  will  reduce 
the  annoyances,"  says  one  superintendent,  "but  just  now  the  shortage 
of  teachers  is  causing  us  a  great  deal  of  trouble  and  the  people,  knowing 
that  we  are  short,  are  causing  a  great  deal  of  annoyance  by  asking  for 
permits  to  teach  when  of  course  we  are  unable  to  grant  them." 

The  fourth  question  was,  "Has  the  new  law  affected  favorably  or 
unfavorably  the  standing  of  the  county  superintendent  as  a  school 
officer?"  Twenty  eight  superintendents  had  noticed  no  change.  Nine 
were  inclined  to  think  that  the  standing  of  the  superintendent  had  been 
affected  unfavorably  but  were  not  positive  in  regard  to  it.  Three 
expressed  no  opinion.  One  prominent  superintendent  says,  "Probably 
from  the  old  standpoint  it  has  had  an  unfavorable  effect.  He  is  looked 
on  now  in  some  quarters  as  a  mere  clerk.  When  the  law  is  better  un- 
derstood it  probably  will  place  the  county  superintendent  in  a  more 
favorable  light."  Another  says,  "In  the  popular  opinion,  I  suppose,  it 
has  affected  him  unfavorably;  for  people  think  that  since  the  only 
thing  that  county  superintendents  ever  did  (  !)  has  been  taken  away 
from  them,  it  certainly  has  reduced  his  power.  I  think  that  the  opposite 
is  true."    Forty  superintendents,  however,  are  decidedly  of  the  opinion 


that  the  hiw  has  affected  favorably  the  staiuling  of  the  eouiity  superiu- 
tendent.  "It  has,  in  my  opinion/'  says  one,  "raised  the  dignity  of  the 
office.  Best  of  all  it-has  started  us  out  for  the  first  time  in  a  real  pro- 
fession.'' "It  is  my  impression/'  says  another,  "that  the  superintendent 
is  thought  of  by  teachers  and  patrons  more  as  a  supervisor  than  as  an 
examining  clerk." 

In  answering  the  fifth  question,  "Does  the  new  law  in  your  opinion 
tend  to  raise  the  standard  of  the  teaching  force?"  sixty-nine  say  "yes," 
eight  say  "'no"  and  four  reply  that  they  have  noticed  no  change.  One 
of  the  older  superintendents  says,  "I  think  it  does.  It  certainly  cuts 
out  those  who  are  not  prepared  to  take  a  full  examination  and  have 
their  papers  graded  at  Des  Sloines.    It  has  made  considerable  difference, 

in county.     Wages  have  advanced  in  many  rural  schools." 

Another  says,  "The  teachers  under  my  supervision  arc  working  harder 
than  ever.  Xearly  all  are  following  some  line  of  professional  reading. 
'J'he  requirements  have  been  raised  and  the  teachers  are  trying  to  reach 
that  requirement."  Still  another  says,  "Yes,  in  this  county.  A  good 
many  of  the  old  teachers  who  had  been  teaching  school  on  second 
grades,  and  a  few  who  had  first  grades,  were  unable  to  pass  the  ex- 
amination and  have  been  dropped,  and  almost  all  who  are  now  teaching 
are  tloing  work  to  raise  their  grades,  and  a  good  many  are  reading  pro- 
fessional books."  "Teachers  are  coming  to  the  opinion/'  says  another 
superintendent,  "that  if  they  expect  to  teach  they  must  fit  themselves 
first  and  not  use  a  school  as  a  place  to  get  a  little  money  to  go  to  school 
on."  Still  another  says,  "I  know  it  does  raise  the  standard  in  the  state. 
As  far  as  my  county  is  concerned  there  is  very  little  change.  Only  one 
teacher  who  had  taught  under  the  old  law  failed  under  the  new.  Only 
four  received  a  lower  grade  of  certificate." 

On  the  sixth  question,  "Is  the  new  law  more  or  less  satisfactory  to 
the  teachers  themselves?"  five  are  in  doubt,  six  answer  "less"  and 
sixty-nine  say  that  it  is  more  satisfactory.  One  does  not  answer. 
Man}'  say  in  substance  that  it  is  more  satisfactory  to  the  competent 
teachers,  less  to  the  incompetent.  "To  the  really  good  teachers,  those 
who  have  an  education  and  training  which  really  fit  them  to  be  teach- 
ers," says  one,  "the  law  is  without  question  satisfactory.  The  poorly 
educated  teacher,  without  professional  training,  of  course  has  a  harder 
time."  "The  teachers  were  afraid  of  the  change  at  first,"  says  anoth'er, 
"but  now  they  are  well  satisfied,  and  many  of  our  teachers  have  worked 
up  to  a  better  certificate  than  they  held  under  the  old  law."  Still 
another  says,  "At  first  there  were  so  many  misrepresentations  by  the 
press  that  the  teachers  became  uneasy.  Since  they  have  come  to  under- 
stand it  the  progressive  all  approve.  If  put  to  a  test  I  am  confident 
that  teachers  would  strongly  uphold  it.  To  the  same  effect  another  says, 
"To  the  good  teachers  it  is  much  more  satisfactory,  but  the  poor  ones 
and  the  incompetent  do  not  like  it  at  all.  In  time  we  are  going  to  have 
a  teachers'  profession  in  Iowa.  Then  all  the  teachers  will  approve  of 
the  law  that  helped  to  create  the  profession."    Pi^rhaps  a  fair  judgment 


174 

is  that  of  a  superiuteudeut  who  answers,  ''this,  too,  can  not  yet  be  deter- 
mined, as  one  of  the  most  attractive  features  of  the  law,  the  renewal 
of  certificates  without  examination  and  without  regard  to  a  change  of 
superintendents,  has  not  had  time  to  begin  its  operations.'^ 

The  Certification  of  Teachers  in  Illinois. 

Under  the  present  system  the  Superintendent  of  Public  ^Instruction 
is  authorized  "to  grant  State  certificates  to  teachers  qualified  to  receive 
them."  County  superintendents  of  schools  are  required  "to  hold  I  meetings 
quarterly,  and  oftener,  if  necessary,  for  the  examination  of  teachers, 
and  are  authorized  to  grant  certificates  of  the  first 'and  second  grades, 
certificates  authorizing  the  holders  to  teach  a  special  subject,  and  kinder- 
garten certificates."  Boards  of  education  in  cities  of  one  hundred  thou- 
sand inhabitants  have  power  "to  examine  all  persons  offering  them- 
selves as  candidates  for  teachers,  and  when  found  well  qualified,  to  give 
them  certificates  gratuitously."  The  boards  of  smaller  cities  are  au- 
thorized "to  examine  teachers  as  supplemental  to  any  '  other  examina- 
tion." In  at  least  one  of  the  schools  operating  under  special  charters 
teachers  are  required  to  hold  two  certificates,  one 'from  the  county  super- 
intendent of  schools  and  one  from  the  city  board  of  education. 

It  will  be  seen  at  a  glance,  then,  ( that  whatever  may  be  the  effective- 
ness of  the  present  method  of  certificating  teachers  it  is  lacking  in 
uniformity.  'So  far  as  we  have  a  system  at  all  it  is  a  county  system. 
Since  there  are  102  counties  in  the  State  there  are  102  standards  of 
qualification  for  county  certificates.  It  is  natural  that  these  standards 
should  vary.  In  some  counties  they  will  be  low,  in  others  high.  In 
some  emphasis  will  be  laid  upon  certain  qualifications  which  in  other 
counties  may  not  be  regarded  as  particularly  important.  Academic  and 
professional  training  will ''receive  in  some  counties  possibly  more  recog- 
nition than  they  deserve,  in  others  less.  In  some  counties  there  will  be 
frequent  examinations,  in  others  only  the  minimum  number  required 
by  law.  ' 

Now  the  commission  has  been  led  to  the  conviction  that  examinations 
for  county  certificates  should  be  held  in  the  various  county  seats  through- 
out the! State  on  the  same  day;  that  all  questions  for  these  examinations 
should  be  prepared  by  the  State  Board  of  Education  and  should  be  uni- 
form throughout  the  State;  that  the  examination  papers  of  applicants 
for  certificates  should  be  graded  under  the  direction  of  the  State  Board, 
and  the  standing  of  these  applicants  should  be  certified  to  the  county 
superintendents  with  whom  the  responsibility  of  granting  certificates 
to  such  applicants  should  be'-left.  This  would  give  a  completely  uniform 
system  of  examinations. 

The  history  of  school  legislation  in  Illinois  affecting  the  certification 
of  i teachers  shows  a  gradual  and,  on  the  part  of  some,  a  reluctant  ad- 
vancement towards  a  general  and  uniform  plan.  At  first  the  trustees 
of  schools  M'ere  the  certificating  authority.  When  it  was  proposed  to  take 
away  from  them  the  power  to  examine  teachers  and  grant  certificates 
and  vest  that  power  in  tlie  county  school  commissioner,  objections  were 


175 

made.  A  compromise  was  affected  by  dividing  the  power  of  1841.  The 
law,  of  1845  authorized  the  county  school  commissioners  to  examine  and 
certificate  teachers,  but  it  provided  also  that  "the  trustees  of  schools  in 
their  respective  townships  shall  have  the  same  power  to  examine  teachers 
as  is  given  to  the  school  commissioners."  Finally  the  township  plan 
gave  way  completely  to  the  county  plan.  This  county  plan  has  been 
in  operation  for  more  than  fifty  years.  During  all  this  time  the  educa- 
tional needs  and  conditions  of  the  State  have  been  growing  more  homo- 
geneous. Our  school  system  has  become  a  State  system.  We  have  now 
arrived  at  a  stage  of  development  in  which  the  county  system  of  examin- 
ing teachers  should  give  place  to  the  State  system. 

The  advantages  of  a  State  system  of  certificating  teachers,  as  demon- 
strated by  fifteen  of  the  states,  are  many.  They  have  already  been  set 
forth.  It  will  be  interesting,  however,  to  reconsider  some  of  th'em  with 
special  reference  to  Illinois.  They  would  accrue  to  the  State  itself, 
especially  to  county  superintendents  of  schools  and  the  teachers,  and  in- 
directly of  course  to  the  schools. 

As  to  the  advantages  accruing  to  the  State  they  are  all  that  are  de- 
rived from  the  system,  for  the  State  is  the  final  beneficiary  of  every  ad- 
vantage which  arises  from  improved  methods  in  educational  adminis- 
tration. If  the  State  plan  of  certification  is  instrumental,  for  instance, 
as  the  commission  believes  it  would  be,  in  securing  better  supervision  of 
schools  and  a  better  grade  of  teaching,  the  State  will  obviously  benefit 
from  these  results.  But  the  larger  system  of  certificatingr  teachers 
would  bring  an  immediate  advantage  to  the  State  that  is  at  least  worth 
mentioning,  and  that  is  the  financial  saving  that  would  result.  During 
the  past  year  there  were  in  the  State  829  county  examinations  for  certifi- 
cates. That  means  there  were  829  sets  of  examination  questions  pre- 
pared, the  same  number  of  printers  bills,  and  the  same  number  of  bills 
for  the  various  items  of  expense  connected  with  conducting  an  examin- 
ation. Under  the  State  plan  there  would  probably  be  in  each  county 
four  examinations  a  year.  There  ought  not  to  be  more.  When  the 
standard  of  teachers'  qualifications  is  sufficientlv  high  they  may  be  re- 
duced to  one  ns  has  already  been  done  in  California.  There  would  then 
be  under  the  State  plan  onlv  four  sets  of  questions  prepared  annually, 
only  four  printers  bills,  and  the  incidental  expenses  of  conducting  408 
examinations  instead  of  829.  Again,  during  the  past  year  there  were 
examined  in  the  State  1^.010  applicants  for  certificates,  and  11.859  cer- 
tificates were  granted.  It  is  obvious  that  in  the  mere  matter  of  provid- 
ing certificates  there  would  be  a  considernble  savins',  for  thcA'  could  be 
pure-based  in  a  I'irsre  quantity  for  a  sum  much  le^ss  than  that  Avhich  is 
now  -paid  bv  the  102  county  superintendents  of  schools. 

This  is  sufficient  perhaps  to  show  that  the  State  pbin  of  cortifiration 
is  more  economical  than  the  present  nlan.  But  the  ndvanta^o  to  the 
State  thus  directlv  arising  is  inconsiderable  in  comnarison  with  those 
which  would  be  derived  from  the  improved  supervision  of  schools  and 
the  better  qualitv  of  teaching  which,  ns  misrht  naturnllv  be  expected  and 
as  the  experience  of  other  states  has  shown,  will  result  from  the  uniform 
plan.     There  will  lie  better  supervision  because  the  county  superinten- 


176 

dents  of  schools,  being  relieved  from  the  merely  clerical  work  of  reading 
and  grading  some  one  hundred  and  fifteen  thousand  examination  papers, 
will  have  more  time  for  supervision ;  and  there  will  be  better  teaching 
both  on  account  of  better  supervision  and  also  because  under  the  pro- 
posed plan  the  academic  and  professional  requirements  of  teachers  will 
gradually  be  raised. 

Turning  now  to  the  question  of  how  the  State  plan  of  certification 
would  affect  the  county  superintendent  of  schools  it  will  be  seen,  as  al- 
ready suggested,  that  it  gives  him  a  better  chance  to  do  the  real,  neces- 
sary, essential  and  vital  work  of  a  superintendent.  It  needs  to  be  em-? 
phasized  that  the  examination  of  teachers  to  determine  their  scholastic 
qualifications  is  no  essential  part  of  school  supervision.  He  who  im- 
agines that  such  examination  is  the  chief  function  of  the  county  super- 
intendent and  that  he  would  be  w^eakened  if  relieved  of  that  work  has  a 
very  inadequate  conception  of  the  duties  and  possibilities  of  that  officer. 
The  county  superintendent  of  schools  should  visit  the  schools  of  his 
county,  not  once  a  year  but  many  times,  observe  the  conditions  of  the 
work  of  those  schools,  suggest  improvements,  draft  general  plans  of 
instruction  and  professional  reading  to  be  followed  by  •  his  teaching 
foTce,  and  devote  himself  in  every  jjossible  manner  to  stimulating  a  pro- 
gressive, professional  spirit  among  his  teachers  and  to  provide  oppor- 
tunities for  the  exercise  of  that  spirit.  If  he  does  all  this  he  Avill  have 
no  time  to  devote  to  examinations. 

The  really  essential  function  of  a  county  superintendent  is  that  of 
granting,  renewing  and  revoking  certificates,  and  that  power  should  be 
left  to  him  unimpaired.  He  may  then  say  who,  among  those  "svho  have 
the  necessary  scholastic  qualifications,  shall  teach,  who  shall  not,  and 
from  his  decision  there  is  no  appeal.  He  may  determine  in  most  in- 
stances just  how  much  professional  progress  on  the  part  of  a  teacher  is 
necessary  to  justify  him  in  renewing  a  certificate.  These  preragatives 
give  him  a  control  over  the  teachers  of  his  county  which  nothing  but  a 
strong  belief  that  he  will  exercise  it  wisely  can  justify  placing  it  in  his 
hands.  It  places  upon  him,  too,  a  great  responsibility,  for  responsibility 
is  inseparable  from  power.  What  ever  objections  may  be  raised  to  the 
proposed  plan  of  certification,  then,  let  it  not  be  said  that  it  weakens 
the  county  superintendent  or  indicates  a  lack  of  confidence  in  his  in- 
telligence and  discretion.     The  opposite  is  true. 

Another  advantage  which  the  proposed  plan  of  certification  will  bring 
to  the  county  superintendent  is  relief  from  the  importunity  of  incompe- 
tent persons,  and  the  friends  of  such  persons,  who  beseech  him  for  one 
reason  or  another  to  grant  certificates  to  those  who  are  not  qualified 
educationally  to  receive  them.  The  pressure  of  political  influence  will 
no  longer  be  felt  for  the  reason  that  in  at  least  the  great  majority  of 
these  cases  it  can  not  become  effective.  The  value  of  the  advantage  here 
suggested  will  be  fully  appreciated  only  by  county  superintendents  them- 
selves. 

These  advantages  are  so  obvious  that  they  must  be  admitted  by  all. 
But  notwithstanding  their  nature  and  importance  there  may  he  those 
who  will  contend  that,  while  it  might  be  well  to  permit  the  State  Board 


177 

of  Education  to  prepare  unii'orni  exaiiiinatioii  question!;  for  all  the  coun- 
tieSj  yet  the  dut}'  of  reading  and  grading  the  examination  papers  of  ap- 
plicants for  certificates  should  remain  with  the  county  superintendent. 
This  might  seem  to  be  a  sort  of  com})romise  between  the  county  plan  of 
certification  and  the  State  plan.  The  suggestion  of  such  a  compromise, 
liowever,  betrays  an  entire  misconception  of  the  essential  features  of 
the  State  plan  of  certification.  If  urged  at  all  that  county  superin- 
tendents should  grade  the  papers,  it  will  he  upon  the  ground  that  by 
reading  them  the  county  superintendent  will  be  abk^  to  form  a  more 
definite  and  a  juster  estimate  of  the  applicant's  scholarship  and  person- 
ality. But  under  the  State  plan  he  would  not  have  to  trouble  himself 
about  the  applicant's  scholarship  for  that  would  be  determined  by  an 
impartial  board.  It  will  remain  for  him  to  judge  the  personal  qualifi- 
cations of  the  applicant  other  than  scholarship.  Now,  how  many  papers 
of  an  applicant  will  it  be  necessary  for  a  superintendent  to  grade  for 
the  impression  they  will  give  him  of  the  applicant's  personality?  Cer- 
tainly not  the  entire  number  he  will  write  in  an  examination.  But  if 
the  superintendent  should  wish  to  read  them  all  there  is  nothing  in  the 
proposed  plan  to  prevent  him  from  doing  so.  If  he  is  a  just  and  con- 
scientious superintendent  he  will  use  all  available  means  to  enable  him 
to  form  a  correct  estimate  of  the  personal  qualities  of  the  applicant, 
and  the  reading  of  some  of  her  papers  may  be  one  of  them,  but  the 
determination  of  the  exact  grade  which  should  be  given  to  those  papers 
is  not  a  necessary  means  to  that  end. 

The  reasons  why  the  grading  of  papers  ought  not  to  be  left  to  the 
county  superintendent  are  very  clear.  The  most  important  of  them  are 
three  in  number.  First,  it  would  leave  the  superintendent  burdened 
•^\dth  a  large  mass  of  clerical  work  from  which  his  efficiency  as  a  super- 
intendent of  schools  requires  that  he  be  relieved.  Second,  it  would  leave 
him  still  subject  to  all  the  forms  of  social  and  political  pressure  to  grant 
certificates  to  unworthy  persons  which  is  now  brought  to  bear  upon  him. 
Third,  and  most  important  perhaps,  it  would  leave  the  State  with  102 
county  certificating  authorities,  the  same  number  of  standards  of  quali- 
fications, and  thus  make  impossible  the  inter-county  recognition  of  cer- 
tificates and  the  consequent  freedom  of  movement  among  the  teachers' 
of  the  State  which  is  one  of  the  chief  merits  of  the  proposed  plan. 
These  three  reasons  are  sufficient  to  show  that  a  compromise  of  the  land 
suggested  would  be  in  reality  a  surrender  of  the  uniform  plan  of  cer- 
tification. Xo  argument  can  be  advanced  in  favor  of  such  a  modification 
-^f  the  proposed  plan  that  is  not  unsound  or  disingenuous. 

So  much  to  show  the  relation  of  the  State  plan  of  certification  to  the 
M-ork  of  the  county  superintendent.  Let  us  now  consider  its  cfTects 
ujion  a  class  of  persons  equally  interested  and  two  hundred  and  eighty 
times  as  numerous,  namely,  the  teachers  of  the  State. 

The  commission  has  repeatedly  declared  that  the  proposed  plan  of 
certification  has  reference  particularly  to  those  who  may  enter  the  pro- 
fession of  teaching  after  the  proposed  plan  is  adopted.  It  has  no  in- 
tention of  driving  from  the  scliools  those  now  engaged  in  teaching,  and 

—12  E  C 


178 

it  has  certainly  no  desire  to  disturb  the  educational  work  of  the  State 
by  creating  a  shortage  of  teachers.  It  is  well  aware  that  in  order  to 
be  effective  a  new  plan  of  certification  should  operate  not  merely  to 
elevate  in  some  general  way  the  23rofession  of  teaching,  which  is  an 
abstraction,  but  should  be  calculated,  first,  to  encourage  and  improvQ 
the  present  force  of  teachers,  and,  second,  to  insure  better  academic 
and  professional  preparation  on. the  part  of  prospective  teachers.  It 
should  create  no  immediate  disturbance  in  existing  conditions.  The 
educational  work  of  the  State  should  move  gradually  to  a  higher  level 
and  should  not  be  crippled  by  driving  from  the  service  of  the  schools 
+hose  who  are  now  doing  good  work  in  them. 

An  examination  of  the  plan  proposed  by  the  commission  as  expressed 
in  the  draft  of  the  bill  to  provide  for  the  certification  of  teachers  will 
show  beyond  dispute  that  not  a  single  teacher  in  the"  State  has  anything 
to  fear  from  the  enactment  of  the  proposed  law.  All,  however,  have 
much  to  gain.  They  will  receive  in  exchange  for  the  certificates  they 
now  hold  certificates  valid  for  a  longer  term;  in  the  renewal  of  their 
certificates  and  in  examinations  for  certificates  of  a  higher  grade,  their 
experience  and  success  in  teaching  will  be  accepted  in  lieu  of  professional 
training;  certificates  granted  under  the  new  plan  will  be  valid  in  any 
county  of  the  State  on  the  endorsement  of  the  county  superintendent  of 
that  county;  there  will  be  fewer  examinations,  the  emphasis  being  laid 
not  on  formal  tests  of  the  teacher  to  determine  her  text  l)ook  knowledge, 
but  upon  growth  in  culture  and  professional  spirit  and  knowledge. 
Teachers,  therefore,  have  everything  to  gain  by  the  proposed  plan  and 
absolutely  nothing  to  lose. 

In  order  to  make  the  transition  from  the  present  county  planr  of  cer- 
tification to  the  proposed  uniform  State  system  as  easy  and  simple  as 
possible,  the  plan  of  the  commission  provides  for  an  exchange  of  certifi- 
cates, in  which  exchange  the  teacher  is  bound  to  derive  an  advantage. 

By  the  present  plan  of  certificating  teachers  the  county  superintend- 
ent may  grant  four  kinds  of  certificates,  namety,  a  second  grade,  a 
first  grade,  a  special  and  a  kindergarten  certificate.  By  the  proposed 
plan  he  is  authorized  to  grant  three  grades  of  elementary  school  cer- 
tificates, two  of  high  school  certificates,  a  kindergarten  certificate  and 
a  special  certificate.  A  third  grade  elementary  certificate  and  the  lower 
form  of  the  high  school  certificate  are  limited  or  temporary  certificates, 
that  is,  the  granting  of  them  may  be  discontinued  at  tbe  option  of  the 
State  Board  of  Education. 

Xow,  if  the  proposed  plan  should  be  adopted  all  county  certificates  in 
force  at  the  time  of  adoption  may  be  exchanged  for  certificates  of  equal 
grade,  that  is,  "a  second  grade  elementary  for  a  second  grade  elemen- 
tary or  a  second  grade  high  school  certificate,  a  first  grade  for  a  first 
grade  high  school  certificate,  a  special  certificate  for  a  special  certificate, 
a  kindergarten  for  a  kindergarten  certificate;  or,  in  case  the  holder  of 
a  first  grade  certificate  shall  have  had  three  years  of  successful  work  as 
a  supervisor  of  scliools  he  may.  witli  tlic  approval  of  tlie  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction,  exchange  such  certificate  for  a  five  3^ear  super- 
visorv  certificate," 


179 

Observe  now  the  advantage  offered  to  the  teacher.  Let  us  suppose 
the  ease  of  a  teacher  who  holds  at  the  time  when  the  proposed  plan  goes 
into  effect  a  second  grade  county  certificate.  Such  certificate  is  valid  for 
one  year  in  the  county  in  which  it  is  issued.  Let  us  further  suppose  that 
this  teacher  is  not  a  graduate  of  a  high  school  and  has  had  no  pro- 
fessional training.  She  has  taught  successfully,  however,  and  when  the 
new  plan  goes  into  effect  her  certificate  is  about  to  expire.  She  presents 
it  for  exchange  and  receives  a  certificate  good  for  two  years  in  the 
county  in  which  it  is  granted  and  in  any  other  county  of  the  State  when 
endorsed  by  the  superintendent  of  such  count}',  renewable  on  evidence  of 
successful  teaching  and  professional  progress — a  certificate  which  if 
she  were  not  already  in  the  teaching  profession  would  require  of  her  a 
high  school  preparation  or  its  equivalent.  The  advantage  of  the  ex- 
change is  obvious. 

Or  consider  the  nature  of  the  exchange  in  the  case  of  a  teacher  who 
holds  a  first  grade  certificate.  Under  the  present  law  a  first  grade  cer- 
tificate requires  merely  an  examination  in  the  common  branches,  the 
elements  of  the  natural-  sciences  including  physiology  and  the  laws  of 
health.  It  is  good  for  two  years  and  only  in  the  county  in  which  it  is 
issued.  This  certificate  would  be  exchangeable  under  the  new  plan 
for  a  first  grade  certificate,  good  for  three  years  in  any  county  in  the 
State,  on  the  endorsement  of  the  superintendent  and  renewable  indefin- 
itely on  evidence  of  successful  teaching  and  professional  progress. 
Teachers  who  now  hold  first  grade  certificates  need  never  be  subjected 
to  another  examination  if  the  new  plan  goes  into  effect  and  if  they  show 
evidence  of  self-improvement  by  general  and  professional  reading,  and 
evidence  of  a  professional  spirit  by  the  quality  of  their  work  and  by  tak- 
ing advantage  of  the  opportunities  provided  for  the  development  of  that 
spirit. 

The  advantages  of  the  proposed  plan  of  certification  to  the  teachers 
of  the  State  holding  county  certificates  arc  sufficiently  obvious  witTiout 
further  illustration.  As  to  those  holding  State  certificates  they  will 
not  be  subjected  to  the  slightest  inconvenience.  The  validity  of  State 
certificates  already  issued  will  not  be  affected  in  the  least  by  the  proposed 
plan.  Holders  of  such  certificates  will  retain  all  their  rights.  State 
certificates  issued  subsequently  to  the  adoption  of  the  proposed  plan 
will,  however,  be  of  a  different  form.  A  life  elementary  school  certifi- 
cate, a  life  high  school  certificate  and  two  forms  of  supervisory  certifi- 
cates, a  five-year  certificate  and  a  life  certificate,  will  be  issued.  As 
to  the  purpose  of  the  supervisory  certificates  they  are  designed  to  encour- 
age and  develop  the  professional  supervisor  and  educational  leader  and 
to  offer  honorable  recognition  of  special  preparation  on  the  part  of  those 
who  intend  to  make  the  supervision  of  schools  their  special  work.  After 
some  date  in  the  future,  say,  July  1,  1914,  a  supervisory  certificate 
should  be  the  pre-requisite  of  employment  in  the  work  of  school  super- 
vision. If,  now,  in  view  of  the  advantages  which  the  proposed  plan  of 
certification  offers  to  those  already  in  the  service  it  is  thought  that  the 
requirements  for  entrance  upon  the  work  of  teaching  are  too  rigid,  it 
will  be  found  on  a  careful  examination  of  the  plan  that  careful  provision 
is  made  to  prevent  shutting  out  any  person  who  has  the  necessary  qualifi- 


180 

cations  to  teach,  Avliether  these  qualilications  are  the  result  of  school  at- 
tendance or  not.  Section  8  of  the  proposed  bill  provides  that  a  future 
applicant  for  a  certificate  who  can  not  show  that  he  possesses  a  high 
school  education  may  be  admitted  to  an  examination  to  determine  whether 
he  possesses  an  equivalent  preparation.  The  door  of  opportunity  to 
teach  is  thus  left  open  to  all  who  are  really  fitted  for  entrance. 

There  is  one  other  feature  of  the  proposed  plan  which  will  not  be 
passed  without  notice.  The  commission  proposes  that  a  second  .grade 
county  certificate  may  be  issued  without  examination,  to  graduates  of 
recognized  nonnal  schools  or  of  institutions  offering  an  equivalent  prep- 
aration; and  that  the  graduates  of  a  recognized  college  or  university  who 
shall  have  had  one  year  of  successful  teaching  may  be  granted  a  high 
school  certificate.  This  recommendation  is  made  after  due  deliberation, 
and  without  a  particle  of  doubt  that  this  feature  of  the  plan  is  both 
just  and  wise.  The  granting  of  special  recognition  to  those  who  have 
specifically  prepared  themselves  for  teaching  is  almost  the  universal 
practice  among  the  states.  It  arises  from  no  disposition  to  favor  any 
schools  or  any  class  of  students.  It  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  premium 
thus  placed  upon  special  training  for  a  special  work  is  a  good  educational 
polic}'.  We  have  already  in  the  school  law  of  the  State  the  provision 
that  the  diplomas  of  graduates  of  a  county  normal  school  which,  when 
\  directed  by  the  board  in  control  of  such  school,  shall  be  taken  by  the 
county  superintendent  as  sufficient  evidence  of  qualification  to  entitle 
the  holder  to  a  first  grade  certificate.  This  provision  should  be  ex- 
tended, though  in  the  opinion  of  the  commission  a  first  grade  certificate 
should  not  be  granted  until  evidence  is  given  by  successful  experience 
of  ability  to  teach.  The  extension  of  such  recognition  would  go  far 
toward  giving  something  of  a  professional  standing  to  the  work  of  teach- 
ing. The  State  expends  annually  over  $300,000  for  the  support  of 
schools  established  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  training  teachers.  It 
has  the  right  to  expect  that  the  graduates  of  these  schools  who  offer 
themselves  for  teaching  are  fitted,  so  far  as  their  training  is  concerned, 
for  teaching,  and  such  persons  have  the  right  to  expect  that  on  the  com- 
pletion of  a  prescribed  course  of  academic  and  professional  training 
they  will  be  permitted  to  teach  without  being  subjected  to  an  examina- 
tion on  exactly  the  same  terms  as  if  they  had  presented  themselves  with 
no  preparation  whatever. 

Fees  for  Examinations. 

In  many  of  the  states  the  examining  authority  is  required  by  law  to 
collect  from  every  applicant  for  teacher's  certificate  a  certain  fee,  rang- 
ing from  fifty  cents  to  ten  dollars,  and  a  fee  is  also  exacted  for  Ihe  re- 
newal of  a  certificate.  During  the  year  ending  June  30,  1908,  Illinois 
thus  collected  from  her  teachers,  actual  and  prospective,  about  $27,000. 
This  tax  is  imposed  on  a  class  of  public  servants  who  are  admittedly 
underpaid.  It  would  be  difficult  to  defend  the  practice  on  the  ground 
of  justice.  It  might  be  defended  as  expedient  in  the  case  of  a  state 
which  was  unable  to  raise  a  sufficient  amount  of  revenue  to  carry  on 
its  educational  Avork.     But  there  are  no  such  states.     It  is  the  teacher 


181 

whose  means  oftentimes  are  deficient.  It  is  hardly  good  policy  to  re- 
quire a  public  servant  to  pay  for  the  privilege  of  oliering  himself  for 
public  service.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  fees  for  teachers'  certifi- 
cates should  be  abolished. 

The  real  cost  of  examining  teachers  is,  as  a  rule,  less  than  the  fee  re- 
quired. In  West  Virginia  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1908,  $5,000 
was  appropriated  fpr  the  examination  of  teachers.  There  were  6,482  ap- 
plicants for  certificates.  The  cost  of  examining  each  applicant  was, 
therefore,  77  cents.  During  the  past  six  years  the  total  appropriation 
of  West  Virginia  for  the  purpose  of  examining  teachers  was  $22,000. 
During  that  period  there  were  30,000  applicants.  The  average  cost  per 
applicant  during  the  six  years,  was,  therefore,  73i/{  cents.  In  the 
state  of  Iowa  in  the  October  1908  examination  there  were  2,057  ap- 
plicants for  certificates.  The  average  nvimber  of  papers  presented  by 
these  applicants  was  about  10,000,  and  the  entire  expense  of  the  examin- 
ation was  $1,100,  or  54  cents  per  applicant.  In  view  of  these  facts  it 
seems  that  the  examination  of  a  teacher  costs  the  state  about  75  cents. 
Pees,  however,  are  rarely  less  than  one  dollar  and  in  many  cases  more 
than  that  sum. 

The  plan  of  the  commission,  as  contained  in  the  bill  recommended, 
contemplates  the  abolition  of  all  fees  for  examinations. 

Plax  of  Certification  Proposed  by  the  Commission. 

m  view  of  the  manifest  advantages  of  a  uniform  system  of  examina- 
tions, and  after  the  most  thorough  consideration  of  the  conditions  sought 
to  be  remedied,  the  commission  presents  its  complete  plan  of  | certifica- 
tion in  the  form  of  the  following  bill : 

Sectiox  1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  People  of  the  State  of  Illinois  represented 
in  the  General  Assembly:  That  no  one  shall  receive  for  teaching  in  the 
common  schools  of  this  State  any  part  of  any  public  school  fund  who  is  not 
of  good  character,  at  least  eighteen  years  of  age  and  who  does  not,  at  the 
time  he  enters  upon  his  duties,  hold  a  certificate  of  qualification  covering 
the  entire  period  of  his  employment  and  granted  by  the  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction,  a  county  superintendent  or,  in  a  city  having  a  population 
exceeding  100,000  inhabitants,  by  the  board  of  education  of  such  city. 

Sec.  2.  Certificates  granted  by  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction 
and  the  requirements  for  the  same  shall  be  as  follows: 

First — A  life  elementary  school  certificate  for  which  the  requirements  shall 
be  graduation  from  a  recognized  high  school  and  from  a  recognized  normal 
school,  or  an  equivalent  preparation,  and  three  years'  successful  teaching  on 
a  first  grade  county  certificate  of  which  two  shall  have  been  in  the  State,  a 
successful  examination  in  English,  psychology,  and  the  principles  and  meth- 
ods oj  teaching,  and  the  preparation  of  a  thesis  on  one  or  more  elementary 
school  problems,  the  subject  or  subjects  of  which  shall  be  selected  from  a 
list  prescribed  by  the  State  Board  of  Education. 

Second — A  life  high  school  certificate  for  which  the  requirements  shall  be 
graduation  from  a  recognized  college  or  university,  or  the  completion  of  an 
equivalent  preparation,  and  three  years'  successful  teaching,  two  of  which 
shall  have  been  in  the  State  on  a  first  grade  certificate;  a  successful  exami- 
nation in  English,  psychology  and  the  principles  and  methods  of  teaching, 
and  the  preparation  of  a  thesis  on  one  or  more  secondary  school  problems, 
the  subject  or  subjects  of  which  shall  be  selected  from  a  list  prepared  by  the 
State  Board  of  Education. 


182 

Third. — Supervisory  certificates  of  two  grades,  first  and  second.  A  second 
grade  supervisory  certificate  shall  be  valid  for  five  years  for  supervisory 
work  in  any  town,  city  or  county  of  tiie  State  and  for  teaching  in  the 
schools  supervised  by  the  holder.  The  requirements  of  such  certificate  shall  be 
the  same  as  for  a  first  grade  elementary  school  certificate,  and,  in  addition 
thereto,  a  successful  examination  in  psychology,  the  history  of  education, 
school  supervision,  administration  and  organization,  and  the  school  system  and 
school  laws  of  Illinois:  Provided,  tiowever.  that  successful  experience  in 
school  supervision  may  be  accepted  in  lieu  of  successful  experience  in  teach- 
ing. This  certificate  shall  be  renewable  for  five  year  periods  on  satisfactory 
evidence  of  successful  teaching,  or  supervision,  and  of  professional  progress. 

A  first  grade  or  life  supervisory  certificate  shall  be  valid  for  supervisory 
v/ork  in  any  tov.-n,  city  or  county,  and  for  teaching  in  any  school  in  the  State. 
The  requirements  for  this  certificate  shall  be  the  same  as  for  a  life  high 
school  certificate,  with  the  exception  that  time  spent  in  supervision  may  be 
counted  in  lieu  of  teaching;  and  in  addition  thereto  a  successful  examina- 
tion in  all  the  subjects  required  for  a  second  grade  supervisory  certificate,' 
sociology  and  such  other  school  systems  of  other  states  and  countries  as 
may  be  prescribed  from  time  to  time  by  the  State  Board  of  Education. 

Life  certificates  in  force  at  the  time  of  the  passage  of  this  Act  shall  be  va- 
lid for  both  teaching  and  supervising  in  any  district  in  the  State. 

Sec.  3.  Examinations  for  State  certificates  shall  be  held  at  such  times 
and  places  and  under  such  rules  as  may  be  prescribed  by  the  State  Board  of 
Education.  To  each  person  who  is  successful  in  the  examination  for  a  State 
certificate  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  shall  issue  a  certificate 
of  the  kind  applied  for,  if,  in  his  judgment,  the  personality  of  such  appli- 
cant and  his  general  qualifications  other  than  scholarship  prepare  him 
for  the  work  v/hich  the  certificate  would  authorize  him  to  perform. 

Sec.  4.  A  life  certificate  shall  be  valid  in  any  district  of  the  State  out- 
side of  cities  having  a  population  exceeding  100,000  inhabitants,  but  shall 
lapse  three  years  after  the  person  to  whom  it  is  issued  ceases  to  engage  in 
educational  work,  unless  it  shall  have  been  renewed  within  that  time  by  the 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  The  holder  of  any  certificate  granted 
by  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  shall,  annually,  while  he  con- 
tinues to  teach,  present  his  certificate  to  the  county  superintendent  for  reg- 
istration. 

Sec.  5.  Certificates  granted  by  the  county  superintendent  and  the  require- 
ments for  the  same  shall  be  as  follows: 

First — A  third  grade  elementary  school  certificate,  valid  for  one  year  in 
the  elementary  schools  of  the  county  in  which  it  is  issued,  renewable  once 
on  evidence  satisfactory  to  the  county  superintendent  of  not  less  than  three 
months'  successful  teaching,  and  a  second  time  if,  in  the  period  following 
the  date  of  issuing  the  certificate,  the  holder  shall  have  had  twelve  weeks' 
professional  training  in  any  recognized  school  providing  such  training.  Ap- 
plicants for  such  certificates  shall  be  required  to  pass  an  examination  in 
such  subjects  of  the  elementary  school  curriculum  as  may  be  prescribed  by 
the  State  Board  of  Education.  The  issuing  of  this  form  of  certificate  may 
be  discontinued  at  the  option  of  the  State  Board  of  Education. 

Second — A  second  grade  elementary  school  certificate,  valid  foi'  two  years. 
This  certificate  shall  be  renewable  on  evidence  satisfactory  to  the  county 
superintendent  of  six  months'  successful  teaching,  and  a  second  tim»  if  in 
the  period  following  the  date  of  issuing  the  certificate  to  the  holder  shall  have 
acquired  twenty-four  weeks'  professional  training  in  any  recognized  school 
providing  such  training:  Provided,  however,  that  if  acquired  in  exchange, 
under  the  provisions  of  this  Act,  such  certificate  shair  be  renewable  indefi- 
nitely for  periods  of  two  years. 

The  requirements  for  this  form  of  certificate  shall  be  graduation  from  a 
recognized  high  school,  or  the  completion  of  an  equivalent  preparation,  and 
a  successful  examination  in  English,  the  methods  of  teaching,  and  such 
other  subjects  of  the  elementary  school  curriculum  as  may  be  prescribed  by 


183 

the  State  Board  of  Education:  Provided,  hotvever,  that  this  certificate  may 
be  issued  without  examination  to  graduates  of  recognized  normal  schools  or 
of  institutions  offering  an  equivalent  preparation. 

Third — A  first  grade  elementary  school  certificate,  valid  for  three  years, 
renewable  indefinitely  for  periods  of  three  years. 

The  requirements  for  this  form  of  certificate  shall  be  graduation  from  a 
recognized  high  school,  or  an  equivalent  preparation,  and  four  years'  teach- 
ing certified  as  successful  by  the  county  superintendent  of  each  county  in 
which  the  applicant  has  taught  and  an  examination  in  English,  the  princi- 
ples and  methods  of  teaching  and  three  other  subjects  to  be  selected  by  th'a^ 
applicant  from  a  list  of  subjects  prepared  by  the  State  Board  of  Education; 
or,  in  lieu  of  the  foregoing  requirements,  graduation  from  a  recognized  nor- 
mal school,  or  from  an  institution  offering  an  equivalent  preparation,  evi- 
dence satisfactory  to  the  couiaty  superintendent  of  at  least  two  years'  suc- 
cessful teaching,  and  an  examination  in  Englis'n  and  the  principles  and 
methods  of  teaching. 

Foxtrth — A  limited  high  school  certificate,  valid  for  one  year,  and  renew- 
able  for  a  period  of  tv/o  years. 

The  requirements  for  this  form  of  certificate  shall  be  graduation  irom  a 
recognized  high  school,  or  an  equivalent  preparation,  and  a  certificate  show- 
ing at  least  one  year's  successful  work  in  a  recognized  higher  institution  of 
learning,  a  successful  examination  in  English,  the  principles  and  methods 
of  teaching,  and  three  high  school  subjects,  one  major  and  two  minors, 
chosen  from  a  list  prepared  by  the  State  Board  of  Education.  The  issuing 
of  this  form  of  certificate  shall  be  discontinued  at  the  option  of  the  State 
Board  of  Education. 

Fifth — A  high  school  certificate,  valid  for  three  years,  renewable  indef- 
initely for  periods  of  three  years. 

The  requirements  for  this  form  of  certificate  shall  be  graduation  from  a 
recognized  high  school,  or  an  equivalent  preparation,  and  a  certificate  show 
ing  the  completion  of  at  least  two  years'  successful  work  in  any  higher  in- 
stitution of  learning;  an  examination  in  English,  the  principles  and  meth- 
ods of  teaching  and  three  other  subjects,  one  major  and  two  minors,  chosen 
from  a  list  prepared  by  the  State  Board  of  Education:  Provided,  however, 
that  this  certificate  may  be  issued'  to  graduates  of  a  recognized  college  or 
university,  or  any  institution  offering  an  equivalent  preparation,  who  shall 
have  had  one  year  of  successful  teaching. 

Sixth — A  kindergarten  certificate,  valid  for  two  years  in  any  kindergarten 
of  the  State,  and  valid  also  in  the  first  grade  of  the  elementary  schools,  pro- 
viding the  kindergarten  training  school  of  which  the  applicant  is  a  graduate 
gives  adequate  preparation  for  first  grade  vi^ork;  renewable  for  three-year 
periods. 

The  requirements  for  this  form  of  certificate  shall  be  graduation  from  a 
recognized  high  school  and  from  a  recognized  kindergarten  training  school, 
or  the  completion  of  an  equivalent  course;  or.  in  lieu  of  .graduation  from 
such  training  school,  such  examination  in  English  and  the  theory  and  prac- 
tice of  kindergarten  work  as  may  be  prescribed  by  the  State  Board  of  Edu- 
cation. 

Seventh — A  special  certificate,  valid  for  two  years,  in  the  elementary  or 
high  schools  of  the  county  in  which  it  is  issued,  renewable  for  three-year 
periods.  Such  certificate  shall  be  issued  only  in  music,  drawing,  manual 
training,  domestic  art,  physical  training  and  such  other  subjects  as  may  be 
added  by  the  State  Board  of  Education,  and  shall  authorize  the  holder  to 
teach  only  the  subject  or  subjects  named  in  the  certificate. 

The  requirements  for  this  form  of  certificate  shall  be  graduation  from  a 
recognized  high  school,  or  an  equivalent  preparation,  and  a  certificate  show- 
ing the  completion  in  a  recognized  higher  institution  of  learning  of  at  least 
two  years'  special  training  in  the  subject  or  subjects  the  candidate  desires 
to  teach;  or,  in  lieu  of  such  training,  satisfactory  evidence  of  four  years' 
successful  teaching  of  such  subject  or  subjects;  a  successful  examination  in 
English  and  the  principles  and  methods  of  teaching. 


184 

Sec.  6.  Examinations  for  county  certificates-  shall  be  held  at  the  various 
toiinty  seats  on  the  same  day,  under  such  rules  as  may  be  prescribed  by  the 
State  Board  of  Education,  and  questions  for  each  examination  shall  be  uni- 
form throughout  the  State.  Such  questions  shall  be  forwarded  to  the  county 
superintendents  under  seal,  to  be  broken  only  at  the  time  of  opening  the  ex- 
amination and  in  the  presence  of  the  applicants.  The  county  superinten- 
dent shall  conduct  the  examination  in  his  county,  and  at  the  close  of  the 
examination  the  papers  of  each  applicant  shall  be  forwarded  to  the  State 
Board  of  Education,  each  paper  being  designated  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
conceal  the  identity  of  the  w^riter,  as  prescribed  by  the  State  Board  of  Edu- 
cation. Such  papers,  when  graded,  shall  be  returned  to  the  county  superin- 
tendents from  whom  they  were  received,  each  of  whom  shall  issue  a  certifi- 
cat  of  the  kind  designated  by  the  State  Board  of  Education  to  each  person 
in  his  county  who  shall  have  passed  the  examination,  if,  in  his  judgment, 
the  personality  of  such  applicant  and  his  general  qualifications,  other  than 
scholarship,  fit  him  for  the  work  of  teaching. 

Sec.  7.  A  county  certificate,  except  a  third  grade  elementary  school  cer- 
tificate and  a  second  grade  high  school  certificate,  shall  be  valid  in  the 
county  in  which  it  is  issued,  and  in  any  other  county  of  the  State,  when 
endorsed  by  the  county  superintendent  of  such  other  county.  A  certificate 
shall  be  renewable  only  at  its  expiration,  and  no  certificate  shall  be  re- 
newed except  at  the  option  of  the  superintendent  issuing  or  endorsing  it  and 
on  evidence  satisfactory  to  such  superintendent  for  successful  teaching  and 
professional  progress.  In  determining  such  progress  the  superintendent 
shall  take  into  consideration,  and  give  credit  for,  professional  reading  done 
under  his  direction,  attendance  upon  any  recognized  institution  of  learning, 
and  upon  institutes  and  teachers'  meetings,  and  for  active  participation  in 
the  same. 

Sec.  8.  An  applcant  for  a  certificate  who  has  not  completed  a  high  school 
course  shall  be  admitted  to  an  examination,  set  by  the  State  Board  of  Edu- 
cation, on  subjects  announced  in  advance,  for  the  purpose  of  determining 
whether  such  applicant  possesses  an  equivalent  preparation. 

Sec.  9.  Any  person  who  holds,  at  the  time  this  Act  goes  into  effect,  a 
valid  county  certificate  to  teach,  may,  with  the  approval  of  the  county  su- 
perintendent, exchange  the  same  for  a  certificate  of  equal  grade — a  second 
grade  for  a  second  grade  elementary,  or  a  second  grade  high  school  certi- 
cate;  a  first  grade  for  a  first  grade  elementary  or  a  first  grade  high  school 
certificate;  a  special  certificate  for  a  special  certificate;  a  kindergarten  cer- 
tificate for  a  kindergarten  certificate;  or,  in  case  the  holder  of  a  first  grade 
certificate  shall  have  had  three  years  of  successful  work  as  a  supervisor  of 
schools,  he  may,  with  the  approval  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion, exchange  such  certificate  for  a  five-year  supervisory  certificate. 

Sec.  10.  In  the  examination  of  teachers  for  certificates  higher  than  those 
\\hich  they  shall  have  received  in  exchange  for  certificates  in  force  when  this 
Act  goes  into  effect,  and  in  the  renewal  of  their  certificDtes,  successful  exper- 
ience in  teaching  shall  be  accepted  as  an  equivalent  for  high  school  and  pro- 
fessional training. 

Sec.  11.  No  fee  shall  be  charged  for  the  examination  of  an  applicant  for 
any  certificate  issued  under  this  Act,  or  for  the  renewal  of  the  same. 

Sec.  12.  Any  person  who  shall  sell,  trade,  barter  or  give  away,  or  offer 
to  sell,  trade,  barter  or  give  away,  to  applicants  for  teachers'  certificates,  or 
to  any  other  person;  or  any  person  who  shall  buy,  purchase,  bargain  or 
trade  for,  or  accept,  any  of  the  questions  prepared  by  the  State  Board  of 
Education  to  be  used  in  the  examination  of  teachers,  or  in  any  way  dispose 
of  or  accept  any  of  such  questions,  in  violation  of  the  rules  prescribed  by 
the  State  Board  of  Education;  or  any  person  who  shall  reveal  or  give  infor- 
mation which  shall  reveal  the  identity  of  any  writer  of  an  examination 
paper,  shall,  on  conviction,  be  fined  not  less  than  $2.5  nor  more  than  $100. 

Sec.  13.  By  the  word  "recognized,"  as  used  in  this  Act  in  connection  with 
the  word  'school,"  "college,"  or  "university,"  is  meant  such  school,  college 


185 

or  university  as  maintains  an  equipment,  course  of  stuay,  and  standard  of 
scholarship  approved  by  the  State  Board  of  Education.  The  rules  of  such 
board  shall  also  be  final  in  the  matter  of  determining  the  meaning  of  the 
words  "high  school"  and  "equivalent  preparation,"  as  used  in  this  Act,  and 
of  other  words  and  phrases  in  this  Act  which  have  no  recognized  legal  defi- 
nition. 

Sec.  14.  Any  certificate  issued  under  this  Act  may  be  suspended  or  re; 
voked  by  the  superintendent  issuing  or  endorsing  it,  upon  evidence  of  im- 
morality, incompetency,  unprofessional  conduct  or  other  just  cause. 

Sec.  15.     All  Acts  or  parts  of  Acts  in  conflict  herewith  are  hereby  repealed. 

Sec.  16.  This  Act  shall  take  effect  and  be  in  force  on  and  after  January 
1,  1911. 


REFERENCES. 

Bachman,  F.  P.,  Certification  of  Teachers  Prepared  by  State  Institutions,  Ed.  26  :40. 
Cowdrick,   E.   L.,   Licensing  of  Teachers,   Ed.    19  :299. 

Cubherly,    E.    P.,    The    Certification    of    Teachers,    fifth    year    book    of    the    National 
Wolfe,  L.  E.,  Recognition     of    Certificates  and  Diplomas,  Proc.  N.  E.  A.   1904  :306. 

Society  for   Science,    Study   of   Education,    Chicago,    University   Press. 
Jackson,    Wm.    R.,    The    Present    Status    of    the    Certification    of    Teachers    in    the 

United   States,   Rep.   of  U.    S.    Com.    of  Education,    1903  :    463. 
Wolfe,  L.  E.,  Recognition  of  Certificates  and  Diplomas,  Proc.  N.  E.  A.  1904:306. 
Report  of  Com.  of  Education  for  the  United  States,  Legal  Provisions  of  the  Various 

States    Relating   to    Teachers'    Examinations    and    Certificates,    1897-1898:1659. 
National    Educational    Association,    Report    of    Com.    on    Interstate    Recognition    of 

Teachers'   Certificates,   Proc.    1905  :240. 


lb'.; 


COUNTY  TEACHERS'  INSTITUTES. 


The  23ractice  of  '■  holding  institutes  for  the  improvement  of  teachers 
in  the  science  and  art  of  teaching  is  general  in  the  United  States. 
As  a  rule  provision  is  made  for  the  organization  and  support  of  .county 
institutes  in  the  school  law  of  the  state,  the  school  authorities  of  the 
state  or  county  being  required  to  organize  and  conduct  them.  In  a  few 
of  the  states  they  are  optional  with  the  county  or  state  superintendent, 
and  in  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  they  depend  upon  the  voluntary 
initiative  of  the  teachers  themselves.  In  the  state  of  Ohio  the  commis- 
sioner of  common  schools  may  arrange  for  an  institute  if  the  holding 
of  one  is  neglected  by  the  teachers  for  the  space  of  two  >years. 

In.  forty-one  states  and  the  two  /  territories  county  (or  district) 
teachers'  institutes  are  held.  The  five  other  states,  namely  Connec- 
ticut, Maine,  Massachusetts,  Ehode  Island,  and  Tennessee-  hold  in- 
stitutes or  teachers'  conventions ,.  and  associations  but  do  not  provide 
for  county  institutes  specifically.  In  Connecticut,  for  instance,  there 
is  no  law  on  the  subject,  but  teachers'  meetings  are  held  at  various 
times  and  places,  y  In  the  year  ending  September  1,  1904,  ninety-five 
teachers'  meetings  were  held  in  that  state  with  an  average  attendance 
of  one  hundred  and  sixty-six.  In  Maine  teachers'  conventions  are 
held  in  each  county  at  (.leaat  annually.  In  Massachusetts  teachers'  as- 
sociations are  voluntary.  In  1907  twenty  regular  institutes  were  held 
in  that  state  in  which  one  hundred  and  eighty-three  towns  were  repre- 
sented. In  lEhode  Island  institutes  are  held  under  the  direction  of 
the  commissioner  of  public  schools,  the  state  appropriating  a  sum 
not  to  exceed  five  hundred  dollars  annually  to  defray  the  necessary 
expenses  and  charges  for  teachers  and  lectures.  In  Tennessee  teachers' 
meetings  are  held  at  the  option  of  the  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction. It'  Avill  be  -  observed,  then,  that  even  in  those  states  which 
do  not  provide  specifically  for  them  the  value  of  county  institutes  is 
distinctly  recognized  and  voluntary  arrangements  are  made  for  hold- 
ing them.  y 

The  ISTumber  of  Couxtt  Institutes  Held  Axnually. 

In  those  states  in  which  the  law  provides  for  county  institute?  the 
requirement,  as  .a  rule,  is  that  at  least  one  institute  he  hold  annually 
in  each  county.  Alabama,  IMinnesota,  Xew  Hampshire,  Xortli  Dakota, 
Ohio,  Vermont,  West  Virginia   and   Wisconsin   are  exceptions   to   this 


187 

rule.  In  Alabama  three  institutes  must  be  held, in  each  county  every 
year.  In  Minnesota  and  North  Dakota  the  number  is  determined  by 
the  state  superintendent.  In  New  Hampshire  the  requirement  is  ,one  or 
morC;,  and  the  same  is  true  of  West  Virginia  and  Wisconsin.  In  North 
Carolina  institutes  are  held  biennially.  In  Ohio  there  is  no  legal  re- 
quirement as  to  the  number  of  institutes  that  are  to  be  held.  In  Ver- 
mont the  number  may  be  one  or  two. ; 

The  Time  at  Which  County  Institutes  are  Held. 

In  only  eight  of  the  states  is  the  \time  of  holding  county  institutes 
fixed  by  law.  Of  these  Alabama  requires  one  of  its  three  annual  insti- 
tutes to  be  held  in  September.  In  'A-rkansas  institutes  must  be  held  in 
June;  in  Georgia  and  Nebraska  in  June,  July  ,or  August;  in  Kentucky 
from  July  to  November ;  in  South  Dakota,  from  April ;  1st  to  September 
'1st;  in  West  Virginia,  from  the  third  w^eek  in  July  to  the  last  wfeek  in 
October.  Texas  provides  that; institutes  must  be  held  within  the  first 
four  months  of  the  school  year.  The  school  year  in  that  state  be- 
gins September  1st.  The  practice  there  is  just  the  opposite  of  \that 
followed  in  Illinois  and  Utah,  both  of  wdiich  states  require  the  county 
institute  to  be  held  at ;  a  time  when  the  schools  are  generally  closed. 
In  nearly  all  of  the  remaining  states  the  time  of  holding  institutes  is 
determined  either  by  the  state  board  of  education,  the  state  ,  superin- 
tendent, or  the  county  superintendent.  In  perhaps  a  dozen  cases  the 
matter  is  left  wholly  with  the  county  'Superintendent  of  schools.  In 
Louisiana  the  time  is  determined  by  the  state  board  of  education;  in 
North  Carolina  by  the  county  board  of  education,  and  ;in  Colorado 
by  an  executive  committee  which  acts  with  the  -advice  and  consent  of 
the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  and  the  -jDresident  of  the  state 
normal  school.  In  a  majority'  of  the  states  in  which  the  time  of  hold- 
ing the  institute  is  optional  they  are  .held  in  the  summer  when  schools 
are  not  in  session.  Montana,  however,  provides  by  law  that  no  insti- 
tute shall  be  held  between  the  first  day  of  -June  and  the  first  day  of 
September,  and  Texas,  as  already  noted,  requires  them  to  be  held  "wjthin 
the  first  four  months  of  the  scholastic  :year."  These  two  states  thus 
indicate  a  definite  purpose  to  make  the  institute  a  part  of  the  school 
work  of  the  year.  This  is  a  practice -that  receives  the  recommendation 
of  those  who  have  given  most  thought  to  this  phase  of  the  subject. 

The  Length  of  Institutes. 

In  about  half  the  number  of  the  states  the  length  of  the  regular 
county  institute  is  one  week  or  less.  The  expression  ;  "regular  county 
institute"  is  here  i;sed  to  distinguish  the  institute  from  the  summer 
normal  schools  Avhich  are  held  in  several  of  the  states.  Separate  pro- 
visions for  such  schools  are  made  in  the  school  laws  of  Louisiana,  Min- 
nesota, South  Dakota  and  Texas.  In  Colorado  and  New  Mexico  the 
institute  must  continue  two  weeks  and  in  Kansas  not  less  than  four  weeks. 
In  other  states  the  length  of  time  durinor  which  the  institute  is  held, 
when  not  provided  by  law.  is  determined  by  tlie  state  superintendent  or 


188 

the  state  board  of  education.  In  Louisiana  ;the  matter  is  entirely  in 
the  hands  of  the  state  board.  In  Michigan,  New  Hampshire,  New- 
Jersey,  New  York  and  Nortli  Dakota  it  is  determined  by. the  state  super- 
intendent or  the  state  commissioner  as  tlie  case  may  be.  In  eighteen 
states  the  provision  of  the  law  is  practically  for  a  week's  institute. 

Methods  of  Securing  Instruction.  < 

In  those  states  in  which  the  institute  is  wholly  under  the  control 
of  state  authority ;  instruction  is  secured,  of  course,  by  the  state  super- 
intendent, the  state  commissioner  or  the  state  board  of  education.  In 
twenty-one  states  the  ki;id  of  instruction  and  the  list  of  instructors 
are  practically  detemiined  by  .the  state  educational  authority.  The  state 
either  employs  the  instructors  outright  or  limits  the  selection  of  the 
county  superintendents  to  a  list  of  instructors  prepared  by  the  state. 
In  Colorado,  Kansas,  -New  Mexico,  Oklahoma  and  Wisconsin  the  law* 
provides  that  institute  instructors  must  have  a  special  certificate 
granted  by  state  authority.  -In  Louisiana  the  state  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  and  the  president  of  the  ,  state  normal  school  consti- 
tute a  board  of  state  institute  managers.  This  board  may  select  "an 
experienced  institute  conductor  who  shall  have  general  charge  of  the 
summer  normal  work."  In  nine  states  arrangements  for  instruction 
are  made  by  the  county  superintendent.  In  Illinois  and  Iowa  instruc- 
tors are  secured  by  the  county  superintendent  with  the  concurrence  of 
the  state  superintendent. 

Some  of  the  states  provide  specifically  that  institute  instruction  must 
be  given  by  one  or  more  members  of  the  faculty  or  faculties  of  the 
normal  schools.  Tn  Wisconsin,  for  instance,  one  of  the  conductors 
must  be  connected  with,  one  of  the  state  normal  schools.  In  Mary- 
land the  institute  must  be  attended  "by  one  or  more  instructors  of 
a  state  normal  school  or  a  normal  department  faculty,  to  be  selected 
by  the  state  superintendent  and  the  principal  of  the  school."*  So 
also  the  law  of  New  Hampshire  provides  that  "the  principal  and 
teachers  of  the  state  normal  school  shall  assist  and  give  instruction 
at  teachers'  institutes,  so  far  as  they  can  without  interfering  with  their 
duties  in  the  normal  school,  but  they  shall  receive  no  additional  com- 
pensation, except  for  traveling  and  other  additional  and  necessary  ex- 
penses while  so  employed."!  In  Utah  also  the  governing  board  is  au- 
thorized to  call  upon  the  state  normal  schools  to  furnish  expert  in- 
stitute instructors  for  work  in  institutes. 

As  a  rule  instruction  may  be  secured  for  an  institute  outside  the 
county  or  the  state,  and  the  practice  of  securing  persons  for  special 
lectures  is  almost  general.  Arkansas  is  the  exception  to  the  rule.  The 
law  of  that  state  provides  "That  all  the  time  of  the  said  institutes 
shall  be  devoted  to  class  work  in  the  branches  of  reading,  writing, 
arithmetic,  orthograph}-,  grammar,  history  of  the  United  States  and 
the  State'  of  Arkansas,  theory  and  practice  and  physiology ."§     While 


♦Public  School   Law,   Maryland,   section   82. 

tLaws  of  New  Hamp.shire   relating  to  public  schools,   chapter  VIII,   p.   48. 

§Digest  of  laws  relating  to  free  schools  in  the  State  of  Arkansas,  section  2,  p.  29. 


189 

tlie  praeiice  of  holding  exaiuiiiations  iininediatL'l}'  after  the  institute 
is  followed  by  several  of  the  states,  Kansas  is  tlie  only  state  whieh  re- 
quh'es  it  by  Ian* 

Attendance, 

In  more  than  half  of  the  states  teachers  are  required  by  law  to  at- 
tend the  county  institute.  In  some  of  the  states  attendance  is  not 
compulsory,  but  a  special  inducement  for  attendance  is  held  out  .by  the 
oti'er  of  a  per  diem  compensation  or  by  granting  special  opportunities 
for  securing  positions  in  the  schools.  In  Indiana,  for  instance,  teachers 
who  attend  the  institute  have  two  per  cent  added  to  their  general  aver- 
age in  examinations,  and  this  increases  their  wages  since  the  Avages 
are  based  upon  the  average  percentage  received  in  examination.  In 
Ohio  teachers  are  paid  for  attendance  at  the  rate  of  two  dollars  a  day 
for  not  less  than  four  nor  more  than  six  days  if  the  institute  is  held 
within  the  vacation  period.  In  some  of  the  states,  as  in  South  Dakota, 
certain  persons  are  excused  from  attending  the  institute.  These  are, 
as  a  rule,  the  holders  of  the  higher  certificates.  In  South  Dakota,  those 
holding  first  grade  certificates,  state  certificates,  or  life  certificates  are 
excused.  Oftentimes  attendance  upon  aYiother  institute  or  upon  a 
summer  school  approved  by  the  county  superintendent  holding  the  in- 
stitute is  accepted  in  lieu  of  attendance. 

Compensation  for  Attendance. 

It  is  almost  the  general  practice,  when  the  institute  is  held  within 
the  period  for  which  teachers  are  employed,  to  allow  the  same  wages 
while  attending  the  county  institute  as  teachers  receive  for  their  regular 
work.  Minnesota  is  apparently  an  exception,  for  the  law  of  that  state 
provides  that  "any  teacher  may  close  his  school  for  the  purpose  of  at- 
tending any  institute  appointed  for  his  county,  and  he  shall  be  allowed 
to  make  up  the  time  so  lost  upon  presenting  to  the  clerk  of  the  dis- 
trict a  certificate,  signed  by  the  county  superintendent,  attesting  said 
teacher's  attendance  at  the  institute.'"*  In  West  Virginia  teachers  are 
allowed  $1.50  per  day  for  each  day  of  attendance.  A  few  of  the  states 
authorize  pay  for  attendance  even  when  the  institute  is  held  in  the 
vacation  period.  Indiana  and  Ohio  are  examples.  The  method  of  pay- 
ment in  these  states  has  already  been  referred  to. 

Methods  of  Supporting  County  Institutes. 

The  county  institutes  of  the  different  states  are  supported  either  by 
a  state  appropriation,  by  a  county  appropriation,  by  certification  and 
registration  fees,  by  voluntary  assessment  of  the  teachers,  or  by  a  com- 
bination of  two  or  more  of  these  methods.  In  twelve  states  institutes 
are  wholly  supported  by  state  appropriations.  The  largest  state  ap- 
propriation for  this  purpose  is  made  by  New  York  which  paid  for 
teachers'  institutes  in  the  year  ending  September  30,  190G,  $47,712.13. 

♦Laws  of  Minnesota  relating  to  scliools  and  education,  section  262,  p.  110. 


lUO 

In  seven  states,  institutes  are  supported  whoiiy  by  county  appropria- 
tions, in  nine,  wholly  by  fees,  in  three,  by  state  and' county  appropria- 
tions, in  two,  by  state  appropriations  and  fees,  in  six,  by  county  ap- 
propriations and  fees,  and  in  five,  by  state  and  county  appropriations 
and  fees.  Fees  are  collected  for  the  support  of  institutes  in  twenty-two 
states.  In  Ohio,  Indiana  and  Maine,  and  perhaps  in  other  states,  the 
teachers  themselves  assist  in  the  support  of  institutes  by  voluntary  con- 
tributions. The  prevailing  methods  of  support  are  by  state  appropria- 
tions, by  county  appropriations  and  by  fees. 

It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  in  addition  to  the  support  of  insti- 
tutes certain  of  the  states  appropriate  large  sums  for  conducting  sum- 
mer normal,  schools.  Minnesota,  for  instance,  makes  a  state  appro- 
priation of  only  three  thousand  dollars  for  institutes,  but  appropriates 
thirty  thousand  dollars  for  summer  normal  schools.  The  law  of  New 
York  provides  ''for  the  instruction  of  competent  persons  in  academies 
and  union  schools,  in  the  science  and  practice  of  common  school  teach- 
ing, under  a  course  to  be  prescribed  by  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction."  For  this  purpose  teachers'  training  classes  are  established 
for  which  in  1906  the  state  of  New  York  expended  $119,517.50.* 

The  principle  facts  concerning  the  institutes  of  the  various  states 
may  be  more  graphically  shown  in  the  following  table : 


►Third  Annual  Report  of  the  Educational  Department,   New  York,  .page   163 


191 


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198 

Some  of  the  states  are  not  included  in  the  table.  They  are  omitted 
for  the  reason  that  provisions  for  the  county  institute  are  either  not 
made  or  are  not  specific  enough  to  furnish  the  necessary  items.  The 
institute  systems  in  these  states  are  as  follows: 

Connecticut  has  no  law  on  the  subject  of  institutes.  Teachers'  meet- 
ings are  held  at  various  times  and  places. 

In  Maine  conventions  are  held  once  a  year  under  the  supervision  of 
the  state  superintendent  and  are  managed  through  local  organizations 
approved  by  him.  Xot  more  than  two  associations  may  be  formed  in 
any  county  and  each  association  limits  its  number  of  meetings  to  two 
annually.  The  usual  practice  is  to  hold  only  one.  The  program  of  the 
convention  is  made  up  in  part  by  speakers  within  the  county  who  give 
their  services  and  of  speakers  from  without  the  county  selected  by  the 
state  superintendent.  The  attendance  of  teachers  is  not  compulsory 
but  they  may  draw  pay  for  two  days  in  each  year  for  the  county  con- 
vention and  for  the  same  time  in  each  year  for  the  state  convention 
unless  a  speciftc  vote  to  the  contrary  is  passed  by  the  local  school  com- 
mittee. The  state  defrays  the  expenses  of  advertising  the  convention 
and  the  traveling  expenses  of  speakers  coming  from  outside  the  county. 
It  also  makes  an  annual  appropriation  for  defraying  that  part  of  the 
expenses  authorized  to  be  paid  by  the  state  superintendent.  Members 
of  conventions  usually  assess  themselves  an  annual  fee  for  additional 
features  arranged  by  the  local  school  ofificials. 

In  Massachusetts  teachers'  associations  are  voluntary,  time  and  place 
being  determined  by  the  county  teachers'  associations  of  which  there 
are  thirteen.  The  state  may  apply  not  more  than  $350  to  an  associa- 
tion's expenses.  Each  county  association  may  receive  $50  from  the 
Commonwealth. 

In  Nevada  the  state  superintendent  conducts  a  state  institute  bien- 
nially and  convenes  five  district  teachers'  institutes.  No  institute  shall 
continue  less  than  four  nor  more  than  ten  days.  Expenses  are  paid 
out  of  the  state  general  fund.  Teachers  are  required  to  attend  with- 
out loss  of  salary.  He  may  call  a  county  teachers'  institute  with  the 
approval  of  the  board  of  county  commissioners,  the  expense  of  which 
is  paid  out  of  the  county  general  fund. 

In  Ehode  Island  institutes  are  held  under  the  direction  of  the  com- 
missioner of  public  schools.  There  is  no  regular  time  of  holding  them. 
The  attendance  of  teachers  is  not  governed  by  any  law.  One  city  pays 
the  membership  fees  of  its  teachers  in  the  Ehode  Island  Institute  of  In- 
struction and  requires  their  attendance  at  the  annual  meeting  of  that 
body.  Not  to  exceed  $500  is  appropriated  by  the  state  for  defraying 
expenses  for  teachers  and  lectures.  The  State  Board  of  Education 
pays  annually  a  sum  not  to  exceed  $300  for  the  purpose  of  providing 
lecturers  and  also  for  publishing  and  distributing  educational  publica- 
tions. 

In  South  Carolina  the  county  superintendent  is  required  to  '^'encour- 
age the  fomiation  of  associations  for  teachers  for  common  improve- 
ment and  conduct  teachers'  institutes."  Institutes  are  held  usually  for 
two  weeks  during  the  summer  and  autumn.  Sometimes  several  counties 
unite  and  hold  an  institute  for  a  month.     Attendance  is  encouraged 


199  , 

b}''  offering  the  renewal  of  certiiicates  without  examination.  The  in- 
terest on  the  permanent  school  fund  is  devoted  to  paying  the  salaries 
of  instructors  for  such  time  as  is  decided  upon  by  the  State  Board  of 
Education.  The  trustees  of  each  school  district  may  bear  the  expenses 
of  their  teachers  if  they  see  fit  to  do  so.  _ 

In  Virginia  .one  institute  sluill  be  held  during  each  scliool  year.  In- 
struction is  secured  by  division  superintendents  uuder  the  direction  of 
the  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 

Typical  Systems  of  Ouganizing  and  Conducting  Institutes. 

A  glance  at  the  foregoing  table  will  reveal  the  fact  that  in  the  dif- 
ferent states  the  word  institute  is  not  always  applied  to  exactly  the 
same  kind  of  teachers'  meeting.  In  some  of  the  states  the  institute  is 
merely  a  convention  or  association  of  teachers  organized  for  the  pur- 
pose of  discussing  questions  of  interest  to  teachers  and  governed  by 
parliamentary  rules.  In  other  states  the  word  institute  is  used  to  de- 
note a  short  summer  school  for  teachers,  in  which  the  instruction  is 
chiefly  academic,  and  the  principal  purpose  is  to  prepare  teachers  for 
an  examination.  In  a  majority  of  the  states,  however,  the  word  implies 
an  assembly  of  teachers  for  the  pui-pose  of  receiving  instiniction  not 
merely  in  subject  matter,  but  also,  and  more  particularly,  in  the  phil- 
osophy of  education  and  the  practical  methods  of  teaching.  In  these 
states  the  institute  is,  or  is  becoming,  a  teachers'  meeting  in  which  the 
aim  is  professional.  Of  this  kind  of  institute  there  are  three  principal 
types.  They  are,  first,  the  institute  which  is  wholly  vmder  the  control 
of  state  authority — the  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  commis- 
sioner of  education,  or  board  of  education,  as  the  case  may  be;  second, 
the  institute  w^hich  is  organized  and  conducted  wholly  by  the  county 
educational  officer,  and  third,  the  institute  which  is  held  by  the  county 
superintendent,  in  which  the  necessary  arrangements  are  subject  to 
the  approval  or  concurrence  of  the  state  superintendent. 

The  New  York  Plan. 

New  York  furnishes,  perhaps,  the  best  example  of  institutes  of  the 
first  type.  In  that  state  all  institutes  are  held  under  the  direction  and 
control  of  the  state  commissioner  of  education.  As  has  already  been 
pointed  out,  the  state  appropriates  $50,000  annually  for  this  purpose, 
or  so  much  of  this  sum  as  may  be  necessaiT.  One  institute  is  heM 
annually  and  within  the  school  year  in  each  of  the  school  commissioners' 
districts.  It  continues  for  one  week.  Throughout  the  district  in  which 
it  is  held  the  schools  must  be  closed  during  its  session,  and  the  teachers 
are  paid  by  the  district  their  regular  salaries  for  the  time  spent  in  at- 
tending. Cities  and  villages  employing  superintendents  are  exempt 
from  the  law  closing  the  schools  during  the  institute  week,  but  many 
villages  take  advantage  of  the  institute  and  close  their  schools.  Cities 
hold  separate  institutes  for  their  teachers,  but  euiploy  the  regular  state 
institute  conductors  and  assistants.  The  program  for  the  institute  is 
arranged  by  the  state  education  department  which  prepares  a  syllabus 
giving  general  suggestions  and  directions  for  organizing  and  conducting 


£00 

institutes  and  which  specifies  and  outlines  the  subjects  in  which  in- 
struction is  to  be  given.  The  program  provides  for  both  general  and 
special  work.  General  work  occupies  the  periods  of  Monday  afternoon, 
Friday  morning  and  the  first  period  of  each  morning.  The  Monday 
afternoon  period  is  devoted  tq  the  organization  of  the  institute ;  the  last 
period  on  Friday  morning  to  a  summing  up  of  the  work  of  the  insti- 
tute and  other  work  incidental  to  the  closing  of  the  institute.  During 
the. morning  period  for  general  work,  lectures  are  given  upon  subjects 
of  general  and  pedagogical  value  and  upon  other  subjects  informational 
or  inspirational  in  character. 

The  institute  is  organized  into  the  following  sections :  Eural  schools, 
graded  schools,  and  high  schools.  The  basis  of  organization  is  the  actual 
grade  of  work  in  M'hich  the  teachers  are  engaged.  Teachers  are  re- 
quired to  attend  the  exercises  of  the  particular  section  to  which  they 
belong.  The  nature  of  the  work  is  indicated  by  the  following  which  is 
taken  from  a  recent  syllabus  issued  by  the  State  Education  Department. 
"Teaching  demands  knowledge  of  the  subject  matter,  knowledge  of  the 
method  of  teaching  the  subject,  and  the  ability  to  apply  this  knowledge 
to  the  teaching  processes.  Teachers  do  not  know  subject-matter  fully 
and  accurately,  their  methods  are  frequently  unpedagogical  and  not 
systematic,  and  they  have  little  or  no  conception  of  the  teaching  pro- 
cesses. The  problems  of  the  method  they  are  not  liable  to  solve  for  the 
reason  that  they  do  not  understand  the  problems.  They  can  not  analyze 
the  problem^ — when  and  how  to  instruct,  wiien  and  how  to  drill,  when 
and  how  to  test.  There  is  a  necessity,  then,  for  three  kinds  of  work  in 
the  institute:  (a)  to  instruct  in  subject  matter,  (b)  to  instruct  in  the 
best  methods  of  teaching  this  subject-matter,  (c)  to  secure,  so  far  as  pos- 
sible, such  practice  on  the  part  of  the  teachers  as  shall  lead  them  to 
understand  and  to  practice  right  methods  and  right  possesses  in  teach- 
ing this  subject-matter.  The  institute  conductor,  or  instructor,  must 
remember  in  giving  instruction  in  subject-matter  that  the  end  in  view 
is  the  method,  and  in  giving  the  instruction  his  methods  will  not  only 
serve  as  a  model  to  the  teachers,  but  will  be  used  by  him  to  illustrate 
the  instruction  given  in  methods.  Instead  of  set  talks  of  forty-five 
minutes,  or  more,  on  various  subjects,  the  work  in  the  institute  will  be 
based  upon  the  outlines  given  in  this  syllabus.  Not  less  than  three 
periods  will  be  spent  on  each  sub-topic,  the  work  covering  subject-matter 
when  necessary,  methods,  and  practice."  All  instruction  for  the  insti- 
tute is  provided  by  the  State  Education  Department.  The  state  employs 
five  regular  institute  conductors  w^ho  are  paid  $3,000  a  year  and  their 
traveling  expenses.  When  not  emnloved  in  conducting  institutes,  their 
services  are  utilized  in  connection  with  the  inspection  of  schools,  prep- 
aration of  examination  questions  and  the  review  of  answer  papers  re- 
sulting from  such  examinations.  These  men,  so  far  as  possible,  conduct 
all  the  institutes.  In  the  month  of  October  there  is  such  a  demand  for 
institutes  that  it  is  necessary  to  emplov  additional  conductors.  Such 
additional  conductors  are  paid  $50  for  the  week  and  their  traveling  ex- 
penses. To  assist  the  conductors  there  are  two  instructors  in  English 
and  two  in  drawing.  The  principals  and  teachers  of  the  state  normal 
schools  are  also  called  upon  to  assist  in  the  teachers'  institutes. 


201 

For  this  plan,  illustrated  also  by  the  institute  systems  of  Xew  Jersey, 
New  Hampshire,  North  Dakota,  Wisconsin,  and  in  part  by  those  of 
some  other  states,  there  is  much  to  be  said.  It  is  systematic.  It  gives 
definiteness,  uniformity,  and  continuity  to  institute  work.  It  enables 
the  state  department  to  plan  institute  instruction  for  a  series  of  years, 
and  thus  produces  an  intended  cumulative  effect  upon  the  development 
and  training  of  teachers.  The  institute  may  thus  be  made  a  powerful 
means  in  working  out  definite  ideals  with  respect  to  the  educational 
interests  of  the  State.  With  a  uniform  outline  of  instruction'  and  a 
corps  of  professional  institute  conductors  and  instructors  who  may  be 
depended  upon  from  year  to  year,  there  need  be  little  unnecessary  dupli- 
cation or  waste  of  effort.  There  is  an  obvious  advantage  in  having  a 
body  of  institute  instructors  who  devote  almost  their  entire  time  to  in- 
stitute work  and  who  prepare  themselves  specially  for  it.  They  come 
to  know  the  teachers  personally,  and  in  time  are  familiar  with  the  educa- 
tional needs  of  each  district.  They  consequently  have  an  advantage 
which  is  impossible  to  those  who  are  employed  for  a  single  institute. 
Moreover  this  method  of  providing  instruction  protects  the  teachers 
from  that  kind  of  popular  lecturer  who  relies  upon  "striking  the  popular 
chord  of  approval*'  by  appeals  to  instinctive  emotions  and  prejudice, 
rather  than  upon  a  succinct  presentation  of  educational  principles.  In- 
deed there  are  not  a  few  lecturers  who,  although  entirely  deficient  in  a 
knowledge  of  educational  philosophy,  are  yet  popular  platform  speakers 
on  platitudinous  subjects  and  who  carry  a  side  line  of  so-called  educa- 
tional lectures  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  the  baldest  commonplace 
sentiments.  It  is  certainly  a  decided  advantage  to  the  educational  work 
of  a  state  to  keep  such  lecturers  out  of  the  institute.  Above  all,  this 
plan  of  organizing  and  conducting  institutes  definitely  recognizes  the 
institute  as  an  integral  part  of  the  educational  system  of  the  State,  it 
indicates  perception  of  the  fact  that  the  benefits  of  the  institute  accrue 
in  large  part  to  the  State  and  that  consequently  the  State  should  provide 
for  its  support. 

On  the  other  hand  this  plan  is  attended  with  all  the  dangers  that 
accompany  rigid  system.'  Whenever  the  educational  work  of  a  state  is 
highly  systematized  there  is  always  the  possibility,  of  course,  that  the 
educational  machinery  may  fall  into  unworthy  hands  and  be  used  for 
selfish  purposes.  In  the  matter  of  organizing  and  conducting  institutes, 
however,  the  chief  objection  to  state  control  is  perhaps  the  possibility 
of  favoritism  in  the  employment  of  institute  conductors  and  instructors. 
While  the  state  plan  •  tends  to  protect  the  teachers  from  educational 
charlatanry  it  also  protects  the  state  instructors  from  the  competition 
of  other  instructors  in  the  state  and  out  who  may  be  more  efficient.  It 
thus  may  lead  to  a  sort  of  intellectual  inbreeding,  very  harmful  to  the 
interests  of  the  schools.  If  a  state  instructor  should  be  inefficient  or  un- 
popular it  may  take  a  long  time  to  get  rid  of  him.  Again,  the  plan 
leaves  little,  so  far  as  the  organization  of  the  institute  is  concerned,  to 
the  local  officials  or  the  teachers  themselves.  The  work  of  the  institute 
is,  therefore,  likely  to  become  formal,  mechanical  and  uninteresting. 


202 

Teachers,  like  their  pupils,  usually  manifest  more  interest  in  doing 
things  for  themselves  than  in  having  things  done  for  them.  Lack  of 
interest  in  an  institute  goes  far  to  destroy  the  advantages  of  uniformity, 
definiteness  and  continuity. 

The  Pennsylvania  Plan. 

Institutes  of  the  second  type  are  well  illustrated  by  those  of  Penn- 
sylvania. In  Pennsylvania  a  county  institute  is  held  in  each  county 
annually.  Cities  and  boroughs  having  not  fewer  than  fifty  teachers  may 
have  separate  institutes.  The  time  and  place  of  the  institute  are  de- 
termined by  the  county  superintendent  or  a  properly  authorized  com- 
mittee of  teachers  acting  with  him.  The  institute  must  continue  in 
session  at  least  five  days,  including  a  half  day  for  going  and  a  half  day 
for  returning  from  the  place  of  meeting.  The  course  of  instruction 
and  the  corps  of  instructors  are  entirely  determined  by  the  county  super- 
intendent. The  only  authority  exercised  by  the  state  superintendent  is 
the  requirement  of  a  report  from  the  county  superintendent,  showing 
the  names  of  the  instructors  and  lecturers,  the  subjects  upon  which  in- 
struction was  given,  the  degree  of  popular  interest  awakened,  and  other 
information  which  may  be  called  for  by  the  form  prescribed  by  the 
superintendent  of  public  instruction.  The  schools  of  the  county  must 
be  closed  during  the  session  of  the  institute.  Teachers  are  paid  for  at- 
tendance, their  compensation  being  based  upon  the  official  report  made 
to  boards  of  directors  by  the  county  superintendent.  The  amount  paid 
the  teacher  for  attendance  must  not  be  less  than  his  per  diem  pay  for 
actual  teaching,  but  shall  not  exceed  two  dollars  per  day  for  each  days 
attendance.  To  support  the  institute  the  treasurer  of  the  county  is  au- 
thorized to  pay  one  dollar  for  every  three  days  spent  by  each  teacher  of 
the  county  in  attending  the  institute.  The  amount  drawn  from  the 
county  treasury  shall  in  no  case  be  more  than  two  hundred  dollars. 
It  may,  however,  in  any  case  be  as  much  as  sixty  dollars. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  chief  distinction  between  the  Xew  York 
plan  and  the  Pennsylvania  plan  is  in  the  form  of  control.  In  Pennsyl- 
vania the  institute  is  organized  and  conducted  by  the  county  superin- 
tendent instead  of  the  state  department  of  education  as  in  New  York. 
In  Pennsylvania  the  state  contributes  nothing  to  the  support  of  county 
institutes.  They  are  almost  wholly  supported  by  county  appropriations, 
the  contributions  of  teachers,  and  the  proceeds  of  evening  lecturers  and 
entertainments.  The  amount  thus  provided  is  about  seventy-five  thou- 
sand dollars. 

This  county  plan  of  organizing,  conducting  and  supporting  insti- 
tutes, of  which  Pennsylvania  offers  perhaps  the  most  successful  example, 
is  particularly  favoraljle  to  the  development  of  the  teachers'  interest  in 
tlie  success  of  the  institute  and  the  interest  of  the  community  in  educa- 
tion. Teachers  contribute  to  the  support  of  the  institute  by  the  pay- 
ment of  admission  fees  to  evening  lectures  and  evening  entertainments. 
This  ought  to  increase  their  interest  in  the  character  and  success  of  the 
institute  and  it  is  usually  supposed  that  it  does.  The  county  superin- 
tendent knows  that  the  failure  of  an  institute  is  charged  against  him.    He 


203 

is  in  competition  as  to  the  success  of  his  institute  with  the  other  county 
superintendents  of  the  state.  There  is  every  inducement,  therefore,  to 
effort  in  the  direction  of  making  his  institute  as  successful  as  it  can  be 
made.  He  secures  the  best  instructors  which  his  means  will  permit. 
It  is  not  unusual  for  county  superintendents  in  Pennsylvania  to  pay 
as  much  as  five  hundred  or  six  liundred  dollars  for  instruction.  Some- 
times as  much  as  eight  hundred  dollars  is  paid.  There  is  variety  of  in- 
struction, special  musical  features  and  oftentimes  forms  of  entertain- 
ment. There  is  consequently  great  interest  in  the  institute,  not  always 
of  the  professional  kind  it  is  true,  but  interest  nevertheless.  There  is 
no  difficulty,  therefore,  in  regard  to  the  attendance  of  teachers.  It  is 
always  large,  oftentimes  a  hundred  per  cent  of  the  teachers  of  the 
county.  Great  public  interest  is  also  aroused.  Sometimes  the  attend- 
ance is  beyond  the  capacity  of  the  largest  halls  available.  A  thousand 
or  fifteen  hundred  visitors  is  not  at  all  unusual.  In  the  total  attend- 
ance of  the  institutes  of  the  state  the  number  of  visitors  far  exceeds  the 
number  of  teachers.  In  the  institutes  of  the  state  there  will  be,  for  in- 
stance, about  twenty-three  thousand  teachers,  but  the  number  of  visitors 
will  be  about  thirty-five  thousand.  It  is  clear,  then,  that  the  effect  of 
the  Pennsylvania  institutes  upon  the  educational  thought  of  the  state 
is  far  reaching.  An  expression  frequently  heard  in  connection  with  the 
institutes  of  that  state  is  that  they  represent  a  sort  of  "educational  re- 
vival." The  appropriateness  of  this  expression  will  be  admitted  by  all 
who  have  seen  the  great  institute  audiences  of  some  of  the  Pennsylvania 
counties. 

The  defects  of  the  Pennsylvania  plan  are  obvious  enough.  There  is 
no  state  system,  consequently  no  uniformity  of  educational  purpose  or 
method.  The  instruction  of  one  institute  may  bear  no  relation  to  the 
instruction  of  the  preceding  institute.  If  a  continuous  line  of  work 
should  be  followed  in  the  institutes  of  one  county  it  might  be  altogether 
different  from  the  work  in  other  counties.  The  necessity  of  making 
the  institute  a  success  sometimes  leads  the  county  superintendent  to 
make  too  large  a  concession  of  educational  purposes  to  the  desire  of 
the  teachers  and  the  public  for  entertainment.  Instructors  are  secured 
for  their  ability  to  entertain  rather  than  for  their  ability  to  instruct. 
Income  depends  upon  attendance.  Consequently  "attractions"  are  in- 
troduced which  will  draw  the  crowd.  It  happens,  therefore,  that  the 
institute  may  be  successful  in  arousing  interest  and  yet  may  be  of  small 
professional  value. 

The  Illinois  Pl.vn. 

For  an  illustration  of  institutes  of  the  third  type  we  may  as  well 
take  those  of  Illinois.  Other  states,  as  for  instance  Iowa  and  South 
Dakota,  furnish  in  some  respect  even  better  examples,  but  those  of 
Illinois  will  serve  our  purpose.  The  school  law  of  Illinois  provides 
that  "the  county  superintendent  shall  hold,  annually,  a  teachers'  in- 
stitute, continuing  in  session  not  less  than  five  days,  for  the  instruction 


204 

of  teachers  and  those  who  may  desire  to  teach ;  and,  with  the  concurrence 
of  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  procure  sucli  assist- 
ance as  ma}'  be  necessary  to  conduct  said  institute  at  such  times  as  the 
schools  of  the  county  are  generally  closed."*  In  another  place  the 
language  of  the  law  is  that  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion shall  be  clothed  with  the  power  "to  authorize  the  several  county 
superintendents  to  procure  such  assistance  as  may  be  necessary  to  con- 
duct county  teachers'  institutes  for  not  less  than  five  days  in  each  year."f 
About  nine-tenths  of  the  institutes  of  the  state  are  five-day  institutes. 
The  remainder  are,  as  a  rule,  for  two  weeks.  Now  and  then  an  institute 
continues  for  a  month.  Instruction  in  the  institute  is  free  to  all  those 
who  hold  certificates  good  in  the  county  in  which  the  institute  is  held. 
Others  are  required  to  pay  a  registration  fee  of  one  dollar,  except  those 
who  have  paid  an  examination  fee  and  failed  to  receive  a  certificate. 
The  law  provides  that  "the  time  not  exceeding  three  days  in  any  one 
term,  or  five  days  in  any  one  school  year,  during  term  time,  actually 
spent  by  a  teacher  of  any  public  school  in  this  state  in  attendance  upon 
a  teachers'  institute,  held  under  the  direction  of  the  county  superin- 
tendent of  schools,  shall  be  considered  time  lawfully  spent  by  such 
teacher  in  the  service  of  the  district  where  such  teacher  is  employed, 
and  no  deduction  of  wages  shall  be  made  for  such  absences."§  Insti- 
tutes are  usually  held,  however,  in  the  summer  months,  hence  teachers, 
as  a  rule,  receive  no  wage  for  attending.  The  great  bulk  of  the  amount 
necessary  to  support  the  institutes  of  the  state  is  derived  from  certificate 
and  registration  fees.  In  a  few  counties  small  sums  are  appropriated 
by  the  county  board.  But  this  is  almost  inconsiderable.  In  1907  it 
amounted  to  $236.15.  In  that  year  the  total  amount  collected  from  all 
sources  for  the  support  of  institutes  was  $52,665.96.  Almost  the  whole 
of  this  amount  was  collected  from  teachers. 

The  peculiarity  which  warrants  reference  to  the  Illinois  system  of 
conducting  institutes  as  an  example  of  the  third  type  is  the  relation- 
ship which  the  state  department  of  public  instruction  sustains  to  the 
county  superintendent  in  the  work  of  organizing  and  conducting  his 
institute.  This  relation  is  something  more  than  advisory.  Instructors 
are  secured  by  the  county  superintendents  with  the  concurrence  of  the 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  The-  State,  however,  assumes 
no  part  of  the  financial  expense  of  institutes.  The  recognition  of  the 
institute  as  an  agency  for  promoting  the  educational  work  of  the  State 
is,  therefore,  only  partial.  The  strength  of  the  plan  lies  more  in  its 
possibilities  than  in  actual  achievement.  The  potential  advantages  of 
the  plan  will  be  considered  later.  We  shall  confine  ourselves  now  to  a 
brief  outline  of  the  history  of  institutes  in  Illinois  as  they  have  been 
conducted  under  this  plan  and  prior  to  its  adoption. 

County  Institutes  in  Illinois. 

The  first  institute  in  the  State  of  Illinois  was  held  in  Chicago  in 
1846.     It  was  not  a  county  institute  but  was  organized  in  connection 


♦School  Law  of  lUinois,  article  VII,  section  10. 
tibid,  article  I,   section  5. 
§Ibid,  article  VII,  section   11. 


205 

with  ci  common  school  convention  wliich  met  in  Chicago.  It  began 
on  Monday  morning  and  continued  until  Saturday.*  The  first  county 
institute  was  held  a  little  later,  either  in  Will  county  or  in  Lee  county. f 

The  first  reference  to  county  institutes  in  the  school  report  of  the 
State  is  found  in  the  report  of  1851,  made  by  David  L.  Gregg,  Secre- 
tary of  State  and  ex  officio  Superintendent  of  Common  Schools.  It 
reads  as  follows :  "In  several  parts  of  the  State  much  interest  has  lately 
been  manifested  in  extending  the  qualifications  of  teachers.  Among 
other  means  employed,  "^institutes'  have  been  formed  in  which  a  regular 
course  of  instruction  on  the  subject  of  teaching  is  given.  Such  insti- 
tutes, I  regard  as  likely  to  exert  the  best  influence  upon  the  character 
of  our  common  schools.  Teachers,  by  meeting  together  periodically, 
are  enabled  to  communicate  to  each  other  the  result  of  their  observation 
and  experience,  and,  by  a  comparison  of  views,  arrive  at  conclusions 
which  are  of  general  advantage.  An  interest  is  also  excited  which,  by 
arousing  the  teacher  to  diligence  and  energy,  leads  to  his  success."  J 

When  Ninian  W.  Edwards,  in  1854,  presented  his  bill  for  the  estab- 
lishment and  maintenance  of  a  system  of  free  schools  lie  provided  for 
county  school  conventions  consisting  of  the  directors  of  the  boards  of 
education  of  the  several  townships  of  each  county  and  gave  to  these 
conventions  the  "power  to  organize  in  their  respective  counties  teach- 
ers' institutes,  for  the  instruction  and  improvement  of  teachers,  and 
the  promotion  of  the  common  schools  of  the  county."  These  insti- 
tutes were  to  be  supported  by  an  appropriation  from  the  common  school 
fund,  apportioned  to  the  respective  counties.  These  provisions  were 
rejected  by  the  Legislature.  In  his  report  of  1855-56  he  recommended 
that  "either  the  county  or  State  should  appropriate  a  small  amount 
towards  defraying  the  expenses  of  teachers'  institutes,  in  counties  where 
one  shall  be  held  for  not  less  than  five  days  in  each  year."§  Nothing 
came  of  these  recommendations.  Consequently  the  teachers  of  the  State, 
at  the  meeting  of  the  State  Association  in  1857,  appointed  one  of  their 
number  State  agent  for  organizing  and  conducting  institutes  and  con- 
tributed to  his  support.  In  1858  this  agent  visited  fifty-six  counties 
and  assisted  in  holding  nineteen  institutes,  (a) 

By  that  time  it  could  be  said  that  "teachers'  institutes  are  becoming 
one  of  the  most  important  means  of  advancing  the  common  school  in- 
terests known  to  the  country.  They  serve  for  the  time  being  nearly  all 
the  purposes  of  a  well  conducted  normal  school,  and  are  equally  bene' 
ficial  to  the  teachers  who  attend  thejn,  and  the  interests  of  the  cause  of 
education  in  the  locality  in  Avhich  they  are  held."  (h)  The  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction  in  1858  recommended  the  appointment 


♦Sixth  Biennial  Report,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Illinois,  1884-86, 
p.  CLIII. 

tMr.  Pillstiury,  in  his  article  on  "Early  Education  in  Illinois."  in  the  report  just 
cited,  says  that  "In  Will  county,  so  far  as  appears,  the  first  county  institute  was 
held";  but  the  Illinois  Teacher,  Vol.  I.  No.  10,  November.  1855.  page  37,  speaks  of 
Lee  county  as  "the  pioneer  county"  in  the  matter  of  holding  institutes.  According 
to  that  .iournal  the  third  semi-annual  session  of  the  Lee  county  institute  was  held 
April   16.   1855. 

^Biennial  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Common  Schools,  Illinois,  1850-51,  p.  13. 

SReport  of  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Illinois.  1855-56,  p.  18. 

a  Special  Biennial  Report,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  Illinois,  1857-58, 
p.  21. 

b  Op.  cit.  p.   18. 


206 

of  a  deputy  superintendent  to  "enable  this  department  to  extend  its 
sphere  of  labor,  so  as  to  embrace  the  delivery  of  public  lectures,  and 
the  holding  of  teachers'  institutes.  This  course,"  said  he,  "is  recom- 
mended instead  of  any  direct  appropriation  for  the  support  of  teachers' 
institutes,  or  state  agent,  because  it  will  subserve  the  two-fold  purpose  of 
a  state  agent,  and  at  the  same  time  render  valuable  and  indispensable 
service  to  the  department."*  In  1861  a  law  was  passed  authorizing 
county  courts  and  county  boards  of  supervisors  to  aid  in  the  support  of 
institutes.  Few  authorities  availed  themselves  of  this  permission.  In 
1865  but  eleven  institutes,  and  in  1866  only  twenty-one,  were  thus  sup- 
ported. Meantime  Superintendent  Bateman  had  recommended  that  in- 
stitutes "should  be  placed  under  the  supervision  of  the  Department  of 
Public  Instruction,  and  that  a  sufficient  sum  should  be  appropriated 
by  the  Legislature,  to  employ  a  suitable  number  of  persons,  who  shall 
devote  their  whole  time  to  the  work."f  This  recommendation,  also, 
was  not  acted  upon.  In  1863  the  State  Teachers'  Association  adopted 
the  following  resolution :  "That  to  render  professional  instruction  more 
universal,  and  to  extend  the  influence  of  normal  instruction  as  widely 
as  possible,  a  system  of  institutes,  under  the  general  auspices  of  the 
State  Normal  University,  should  be  held  in  each  and  every  county  in  the 
State."  The  plan  Avas  to  divide  the  State  into  three  districts.  The  in- 
stitutes in  each  district  were  to  be  conducted  by  a  superintendent  of 
institutes,  assisted  by  members  of  the  normal  classes,  whiqh  members 
were  to  be  designated  by  the  principal  of  the  State  Normal  University 
and  other  competent  persons.  The  times  of  holding  institutes  were  to 
be  decided  upon  by  the  faculty  of  the  normal  university  and  three  superin- 
tendents of  institutes,  in  copijeration  with  the  county  superintendents 
or  school  commissioners.  The  county  commissioner,  or  such  person  as 
the  institute  might  select,  was  to  be  the  president  of  the  institute  of  his 
county,  to  give  notice  of  the  same,  and  to  provide  the  place  for  holding 
it.  Teachers  were  to  be  permitted  to  close  their  schools  during  the  ses- 
sion of  the  county  institute,  and  if  they  were  present  at  the  session  of 
the  institute,  their  wages  were  to  continue  as  though  their  schools  re- 
mained in  session.  A  committee  of  five  was  appointed  to  elaborate 
this  plan,  prepare  a  bill  embodying  it,  and  to  introduce  it  into  the  Legis- 
lature. This  plan  was  approved  by  State  Superintendent  Brooks.  Noth- 
ing came  of  it,  however. 

In  1865  an  amendment  to  the  law  provided  that  county  superin- 
tendents should  "encourage  the  formation  and  assist  in  the  manage- 
ment of  county  teachers'  institutes."  There  was  an  immediate  increase 
in  the  number  of  institutes  held.  The  number  of  counties  in  which  in- 
stitutes were  held  increased  from  thirty-two  in  1865  to  forty-two  in 
1866.  In  1867  the  General  Assembly  increased  the  compensation  of 
county  superintendents  to  $5.00  a  day  for  services  actually  rendered. 
This  provision  also  affected  immediately  the  number  of  institutes.  In 
that  vear  thev  were   held    in   twentv-five   additional   counties   and    the 


*   Op.   cit.  p.   21. 

t  Third    biennial    report.    Superintendent    Public    Instruction,    Illinois,    1859-60, 
page  50. 


207 

number  of  institutes  rose  from  fifty-six  to  131.  In  his  report  for  1867-G8 
Superintendent  Bateman  recommended  that  teachers  should  be  per- 
mitted by  law  to  attend  the  county  institute  and  that  no  deduction  of 
pay  or  loss  of  time  should  be  incurred  by  a  teacher  for  the  number  of 
days  during  which  such  teacher  was  in  actual  and  regular  attendance 
in  the  institute.  If  the  institute  were  held  in  term  time  leave  of  ab- 
sence should  not  be  granted  more  than  once  during  any  one  period  of 
six  months,  nor  for  more  than  one  week  at  any  one  time.  This  became 
a  law  in  18G9.  It  was  repealed  however  in  1872.  The  law  adopted  that 
year  merely  provided  that  the  county  superintendent  should  "encourage 
the  fonnation  and  assist  in  the  management  of  county  teachers'  in- 
stitutes." 

In  the  same  year  Superintendent  Bateman  brought  forward  once  more 
his  recommendation  that  the  State  undertake  to  a  limited  extent  the 
management  and  control  of  local  institutes  of  instruction  through  the 
agency  of  competent  and  suitable  persons  appointed  or  commissioned 
in  such  a  manner  as  may  be  prescribed  by  law,  and  who  shall  be  directly 
responsible  to  the  State  for  their  acts,  and  be  paid  by  the  State  for  their 
services,  upon  such  vouchers  as  are  required  of  other  agents  and  servants 
of  the  State.  "It  should  be  made  the  duty  of  these  men,"  he  said,  "to 
organize  and  conduct  a  series  of  meetings  or  institutes  for  the  instruction 
of  teachers  of  common  schools,  and  those  desiring  to  become  such,  in  the 
principles  and  methods  of  teaching;  the  organization,  classification,  dis- 
cipline and  government  of  schools;  the  requirements  of  the  school  law; 
the  rights,  powers  and  duties  of  school  officers,  teachers,  pupils  and 
citizens,  and  other  subjects  pertaining  to  the  welfare  and  improvement 
of  the  public  schools.  It  should  also  be  made  the  duty  of  these  men  to 
instruct  the  people,  by  public  addresses  and  otherwise,  in  respect  to 
the  nature  and  necessity  of  free  schools;  their  vital  relation  to  free 
government;  the  relations  that  should  subsist  between  parents  and 
teachers ;  the  characteristics  of  good  schools  and  teachers,  and  poor  ones ; 
how  to  obtain  and  retain  one,  and  avoid  the  other;  and  the  incomput- 
able blessings  of  right  elementally  training  on  the  one  lumd,  and  the 
irreparable  mischief  of  ignorant  teachers,  irrational  methods  and  mis- 
education  on  the  other. 

The  sum  of  $10,000.00  per  annum  would  secure  the  services  of  four 
or  five  picked  men  for  this  work — men  of  ability  and  culture,  thor- 
oughly acquainted  with  systems  of  public  education,  and  experienced 
in  the  supervision,  management  and  instruction  of  common  schools — 
men  of  prudence,  good  sense  and  sound  judgment;  able  both  to  instruct 
and  train  teachers  for  the  school  rooms  of  the  State,  and  to  address  public 
assemblies  with  force,  dignity  and  effect.  Tlicy  would  give  their  whole 
time  to  their  work,  so  arranging  their  plan  of  operations  as  to  bring 
the  teachers  and  people  of  the  whole  State,  or  so  much  thereof  as  sliould 
be  thought  expedient,  within  tlie  range  of  their  influence  and  efforts, 
every  year.  Every  institute  conducted  by  tliem  would  l)e  in  the  interest 
of  sound  elementary  scholarship,  scientific  methods  and  principles  and 
true  education.  These  things  are  essential,  and  it  is  not  possible  to  be  sure 
of  them   in   institutes  having  no  intelligent  supervision,   and   working 


208 

on  no  comprehensive  plan,  and  toward  no  definite  end.  Lack  of  such 
responsible  control  and  assured  ability,  of  instruction  and  management, 
has  been  the  main  element  of  weakness  and  inefficiency,  and  the  chief 
cause  of  occasional  failure,  in  our  present  scheme  of  institute  operations. 
It  could  hardly  be  otherwise.  Without  funds;  without  recognized 
leaders;  without  definite  plans  or  the  time  to  mature  and  execute  them; 
with  no  comprehensive  system  of  co-operation  among  the  counties; 
with  no  countenance  in  the  laws,  and,  in  many  instances,  none  from  the 
people,  but  disfavor  instead;  with  the  chief  school  officer  of  the  county 
ofttimes  unable  to  take  the  lead  and  not  seldom  unwilling  to  do  so — 
the  teachers  have  done  the  best  they  could,  and  the  marvel  is  that  they 
have  done  so  much  and  so  well. 

By  the  proposed  plan,  nearly  all  of  those  obstacles  will  be  removed. 
Acting  by  the  authority  of  the  State,  and  not  dependent  upon  the 
teachers  or  local  communities  for  their  compensation,  these  men  would 
enter  upon  their  work  under  the  most  favorable  conditions.  Selected 
for  their  skill  and  ability  alone,  and  clothed  with  discretion  to  organize 
the  work  upon  the  scale  of  the  whole  State,  with  sole  reference  to  the 
needs  of  the  representative  counties  and  to  the  accomplishment  of  the 
best  results,  they  would  soon  be  able  to  devise  and  put  in  operation  a 
comprehensive  and  well  matured  plan  of  common  school  effort,  and  to 
prosecute  the  same  with  telling  effect.  In  what  other  way  can  the  dis- 
trict schools  be  so  soon  and  so  effectually  supplied  Avitli  qualified  teach- 
ers, or  with  teachers  of  improved  qualifications  ?  How  otherwise  can  the 
body  of  the  people  be  so  well  instructed  in  regard  to  the  claims  of  public 
education,  the  principles  of  teaching,  the  evils  of  mis-education,  the  ele- 
ments and  conditions  of  successful  instruction,  and  the  general  economy 
of  schools  and  school  management?  Is  it  seen  in  what  other  manner 
the  comparatively  trifling  sum  named  could  better  be  made  to  subserve 
the  purposes  for  which  the  State,  in  compliance  with  the  requirements 
of  the  Constitution,  has  established  the  system  of  free  schools  ?"* 

This  plan  suggests  the  present  plan  of  New  York.  It  is  quoted  in 
full  because  for  many  years  it  was  the  accepted  plan  of  those  who 
thought  to  improve  the  institute  work  of  the  state.  It  Avas  strongly 
endorsed  by  Superintendent  Bateman's  immediate  successors,  Mr.  Etter . 
and  Mr.  Slade.  Mr.  Etter,  in  his  report  for  1875  and  1876  said  that  the 
management  of  institutes  and  the  methods  of  instruction  "should  to- 
some  extent  be  under  the  control  and  direction  of  the  state  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction.  He  should  have  authority  to  employ  a 
few  of  the  most  competent  and  thorough  instructors  in  the  professional 
training  of  teachers,  and  be  permitted  to  send  them  to  those  counties 
where  their  work  in  the  institutes  and  their  addresses  to  the  people  are 
most  needed.^f  He  asked  the  General  Assembly  to  appropriate  the  sum 
of  five  thousand  dollars  annually  for  this  purpose,  such  amount  to  be  at 
the  disposal  of  the  state  superintendent.  He  also  suggested  the  pro- 
priety of  charging  a  small  fee  for  each  certificate  issued,  which  fee  was 


*  Ninth  Biennial  Report,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Illinois,  1S71- 
72,   pp.   69,    70,   71. 

t  Eleventh  Biennial  Report,  Superintendent  Public  Instruction,  Illinois,  1875- 
76,   p.   377. 


200 

to  be  used  b}^  the  county  superintendent  to  defray  the  Uu'iil  expenses  of 
the  institute.  A  bill  embodying  this  recommendation  in  re»i;ard  to  fe^s 
was  introduced  in  the  Thirty-second  (Jeneral  Assembly  and  passed  the 
Senate.  It  did  not  become  a  law,  however,  until  IHSo.  Mr.  Etter  re- 
newed bis  recommendation  in  1875).  ]\leantime  the  State  Teachers'  As- 
sociation which  met  in  1878  had  passed  the  foUowin*;-  resolution  :  "This 
association  heartily  endorses  the  proposition  to  establish  a  system  of 
teachers'  institutes,  to  be  conducted  principally  at  the  expense  of  the 
state  by  regularly  appointed  agents."  Mr.  Slade  reprinted  in  his  re- 
port of  187y-80  the  Bateman  plan  in  full  and  earnestly  endorsed  it. 

Jn  1883  by  an  amendment  to  the  school  law  it  was  provided  tliat  each 
applicant  for  a  certificate  or  for  the  renewal  (if  a  certificate  should  pay 
to  the  county  superintendent  a  fee  of  one  dollar,  and  that  the  fees  so 
collected  should  be  used  to  defray  the  expenses  of  a  teachers'  institute  to 
be  hold  annually  for  not  less  than  five  (hiys.  It  was  also  ])rovided  that 
the  comity  superintendent  might,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  state 
superintendent  of  ])ublic  instruction,  ])rocure  such  assistance  as  may  be 
necessary  to  conduct  said  institutes  at  such  times  as  the  schools  of  the 
county  arc  generally  clost'd  and  that  two  or  more  adjoining  counties 
might  hold  an  institute  together.  Finally  in  1887  the  tollowin-r  amend- 
ment to  the  school  law  was  enacted:  "The  timejiot  exceeding  three 
days  in  any  one  term,  or  five  days  in  one  school  year,  during  term  tirne, 
actually  spent  by  a  teacher  of  any  public  school  in  this  st:itc  in  attend- 
ance u])oii  a  teachers'  institute,  held  under  the  dii'cction  of  the  county 
superintendent  of  schools,  shall  be  considered  lime  lawtully  spent  by 
such  tcai  lici'  in  the  service  of  the  district  where  such  teacher  is  employed, 
and  no  deduction  of  wages  shall  be  made  for  such  absences.  And  it  shall 
he  the  duty  of  the  school  oflicers  and  hoards  of  education  to  allow  teachers 
to  close  their  schools  for  sucli  attendance  upon  such  institute."*  This 
brings  us  to  the  completion  of  (he  institute  plan  now  in  operation. 

Since  1887  no  change  has  been  nuidc  in  the  law  regarding  institutes. 
The  suhject  has  received  consideration,  however,  not  only  hy  superin- 
tendents of  public  instruction  in  oHice  since  Ihal  lime,  hut  also  by  the 
teachers  of  the  state.  In  1S!);5.  at  a  meeting  of  the  county  superinten- 
dents' association  a  couimittee  ol'  Ihrei'  was  appointed  consisting  of 
Henry  IJaab,  IMarviiU'  (^uakenhush  and  Allen  15.  Martin,  to  report  a 
systenuitic  plan  for  institute  work.  This  coiuniittee  sent  to  the  county 
superintendents  of  the  state  and  to  "some  successful  institute  instructors 
in  this  and  adjoining  states"  a  list  of  questions.  From  the  answers  re- 
ceived and  from  their  own  experience  concerning  the  conduct  of  in- 
stitutes they  olfered  the  following  suggestions:  "Firyl — We  regard  the 
institute  as  a  temporary  expedient  so  long  as  hetter  provision  for  the 
education  of  teachers  is  not  made  bv  the  Stall'.  We  ar'.  howevc''.  on 
this  account,  not  of  llu'  opinion  that  tln'  institute  should  Iteeome  a  tlung 
of  the  past  when  the  state  has  established  a  number  of  normal  schools 
sulTicient  to  educate  all  that  are  to  teach  in  the  i)uhlic  schools.  Hence, 
the  institute  should  he  a  n(U-mal  school  which,  foi-  a  short  period  of  time, 


*    lUiiKiis   School   Law,   Artich^   VII,   .S.'cti.m    11. 

-U  E  C 


210 

attempts  to  give  instruction  in  the  several  branches  as  well  as  in  the 
principles  and  methods  for  imparting  it,  and  in  proper  doctrines  con- 
ceruiiig  school  government,  school  hygiene  and  sanitation,  the  ethics 
and  gesthetics  of  education.  The  work  of  the  institute  must,  therefore, 
be  comprehensive  and  rather  calculated  to  start  the  student-teachers 
in  the  correct  way  of  doing  things,  than  that  it  can  undertake  to  give 
extensive  academic  instruction  or  complete  courses  in  psychology  and 
pedagogic*.  It  is,  furthermore,  evident  that  lengthy  discussions  of  sub- 
jects can  no^•  be  given,  that  frequently  statements  have  to  go  without  full 
argument,  tliat  the  student-teachers  have  to  do  their  own  thinking  to 
grasp  the  thought  involved  by  the  instructor,  which  has  generally  been 
accepted  as  truthful  and  correct. 

On  the  whole,  it  may  be  said  that  the  institute  is  what  the  county 
superintendent  chooses  to  make  it;  first,  by  his  own  knowledge  of  the 
wants  of  the  profession,  and  the  energy  he  brings  to  the  task;  and, 
second,  by  the  selection  he  makes  of  the  instructors  available  for  the 
work.  In  every  institute  there  should  be,  at  least,  one  instructor  who 
towers  far  above  the  teachers  enrolled  so  that  the  latter  may  look  up 
to  him  as  the  beacon  light.  To  employ  local  talent  merely  to  keep 
the  money  raised  in  the  county,  is  a  wrong  done  the  teachers  who  have 
a  right  to  get  the  very  best  service  from  the  institute.  We  are  far 
tvom  discountenancing  the  employment  of  competent  men  of  the  county 
in  which  the  institute  is  held,  provided  they  possess  superior  qualifi- 
cations; for  .young  men  must  be  given  an  opportunity  to  develop  in 
this  kind  of  work. 

That  a  mature  plan  for  each  county's  institute  may  be  the  outcome, 
a  consultation  of  county  superintendents  and  instructors  before  the 
institute  opens,  seems  imavoidable,  aij.d  such  face-to-face  meeting  is 
preferable  to  mere  correspondence.  We  recommend  most  strenuously 
that  the  county  superintendent  call  his  instructors  together  and  form- 
ulate a  definite  plan  and  program  before  the  institute  opens. 

We  deprecate  the  custom,  sometimes  resorted  to,  of  making  license 
to  teach  dependent  on  attendance  at  the  institute ;  the  work  of  the 
institute  should  be  made  so  good  and  serviceable  that  teachers  can  not 
afford  to  stay  away  from  it. 

Second — In  some  counties,  it  may  be  necessary  to  hold  schools  of 
instruction  in  which  the  student-teachers  may  acquire  a  better  knowl- 
edge of  the  different  liranches,  but  we  wish  to  emphasize  the  state- 
ment that  the  institute  proper  shall  not  continue  over  a  longer  period 
than  one,  possibly  two  weeks.  We  believe  in  intensity  of  instruction 
rather  than  dilution.  The  interest,  the  enthusiasm,  which  should  be 
aroused  in  the  institute,  can  not  be  kept  up  throughout  a  longer  session. 

Third — The  principal  aims  set  forth  in  section  one  of  this  report 
should  be  constantly  before  the  mind  of  the  county  superintendent; 
it  should,  however,  be  modified  according  to  changed  conditions  and 
demands  as  they  appear  to  the  superintendent  in  his  school  visitation ; 
e.  g.,  the  superintendent  finds  that  a  certain  branch  is  poorly  taught, 
may  be  totally  neglected  in  the  schools,  or  the  sanitation  of  the  house 


211 

&Dd  tire  premises  are  not  what  they  ought  to  be,  provision  should  be 
made  to  remedy  these  defects.  Or,  it  may  be  found  that  a  number  of 
teachers  excel  in  certain  lines,  xln  opportunity  should  be  given  to 
them  to  lay  their  methods  before  the  body  of  the  teachers. 

Fourth — When  the  enrollment  at  an  institute  does  not  exceed  75  or 
80,  the  institute  need  not  necessarily  be  divided  into  sections,  unless 
the  actual  conditions  of  the  schools  of  the  county  demand  such  di- 
vision, especially,  when  the  great  number  of  the  schools  of  the  county 
are  ungraded.  When  the  enrollment  exceeds  the  above  named  num- 
ber, a  division  into  sections  should  be  made  on  the  line  of  scholarship, 
experience  in  teaching  and  former  attendance  on  institutes,  of  which 
the  superintendent  is  the  judge.  Work  which  is  conducted  on  the  lec- 
ture plan,  and  in  which  personal  recitation  by  the  student  and  per- 
gonal supervision  by  the  instructor  are  not  essential,  does  not  require 
a  division  into  sections,  and  it  may  be  attended  to  in  general  session. 
Under  this  head  are  included  school  government,  school  hygiene  and 
sanitation,  school  economy,  and  lectures  on  ethics.  We  do  not  recom- 
mend that  all  branches  taught  in  the  schools  should  be  taught  regu- 
larly in  the  institute  every  year,  but  we  do  recommend  that,  besides 
the  recitations  in  pedagogics,  the  presentation  of  every  branch  should 
be  so  conducted  b}'  the  instructor  as  to  carry  along  the  principles  and 
methods  of  teaching  it.  Less  theory,  more  practice,  should  be  our 
motto.  The  branches,  however,  which  do  need  constant  attention,  are 
English  and  American  literature  in  their  best  types,  the  mathematics, 
and  good  oral  and  written  expression,  purity  of  style,  a  care  of  the 
mother  tongue.  In  addition  to  these,  we  should  recommend  drill  in 
light  gymnastics,  vocal  music  and  drawing.  The  natural  sciences  de- 
mand instruction  from  things  rather  than  books;  laboratory  work  and 
the  examination  of  the  natural  object,  in  which  the  treatment  of  one 
animal,  one  plant,  one  experiment,  may  serve  as  a  type  for  the  many. 
In  history,  it  is  more  important  to  give  the  manner  of  presentation 
and  the  method  of  study  than  the  teaching  of  historical  facts;  these 
can  be  committed  by  the  teacher  without  the  help  of  the  institute. 

The  question  whether  the  teachers  should  do  any  studying  of  books 
during  the  institute  is  frequently  asked.  It  is  our  opinion  that  the 
mental  work  of  six  or  seven  hours,  especially  during  the  time  of  year 
when  the  institute  is  generally  held,  does  not  admit  of  hard  study.  How- 
ever, this  does  not  exclude  the  looking  up  of  authorities,  of  preparation 
for  a  recitation  or  of  the  writing  of  model  work.  Let  the  members  of 
the  institute  bring  with  them  all  the  freshness  and  enthusiasm  every 
morning  so  that  the  session  may  be  inspiring. 

In  conclusion,  we  wish  to  offer  a  suggestion  on  which  experience, 
or  rather  non-experience,  forbids  us  to  make  any  recommendation, 
namely,  the  planning  of  several  institutes  in  advance  for  a  number  of 
years,  so  that  each  succeeding  year's  work  may  be  a  continuation  of 
the  work  of  the  preceding  year.  Under  favorable  circumstances  and 
in  counties  where  the  body  of  teachers  does  not  change  very  much  in 


213 

the  course  of  time,  this  plaiming  of  the  work  I'or  several  years  in  ad- 
vance deserves  notice,  and  should  be  tried  l)y  pro^iri'cssive  county  super- 
intendents.''* 

Jn  1893  and  in  1894  a  state  institute  for  the  licensed  institute 
workers  of  the  State  was  held.  The  expenses  of  these  institutes  were 
paid  out  of  the  contingent  fund  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction. The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  requested  an  ap- 
propriation for  conducting  what  was  called  the  State  institute,  but  it 
v.as  not  granted. 

This  resume  of  the  legislation  in  regard  to  institutes,  together  with 
reference?  to  various  plans  proposed  in  regard  to  conducting  them,  is 
made  to  indicate  something  of  the  attention  Avhich  they  have  hereto- 
fore received.  It  will  be  interesting  to  notice  the  growth  of  institutes 
in  the  State  from  the  beginning.  The  following  table  shows  the  in- 
crease in  the  nu7nber  of  counties  holding  institutes  and  in  the  number 
of  institutes  from  vear  to  vear  since  1857 : 


Table  II. 

SJioiriuf/  ihc  uiunher  of  Counties  in  which  Institutes  uxre  held,  the 
total  ninnher  of  Institutes  in  the  State,  and  the  total  attendance  for 
each  year  since  lSo7. 


Year. 

Counties. 

Institutes. 

Attendance. 

Year 

Counties. 

Institutes. 

Attendance. 

1857.. 

20 

30 

* 

,1883.. 

70 

167 

fi.877 

1858.. 

33 

52 

* 

1884.. 

80 

82 

7,487 

18.=i9.. 

* 

* 

* 

1885.. 

99 

102 

11,517 

1860 . . 

4t 

84 

1,924 

1886.. 

101 

110 

13,f60 

1861.. 

31 

41 

2.100 

1887.. 

97 

107 

14,428 

1862 . . 

.SO 

37 

1.554 

1888.. 

102 

111 

14,!-55 

1863.. 

28 

38 

1.921 

1889.. 

97 

108 

14,r9.1 

1864.. 

a.T 

r,o 

2,167 

1890.. 

97 

133 

15,f03 

186.1 . . 

32 

46 

2. 457 

1891.. 

97 

128 

14.712 

1866.. 

42 

56 

3,199 

1892 . . 

100 

129 

15.022 

1867 . . 

67 

131 

.5, 129 

1893.. 

100 

135 

16,178 

1868.. 

71 

1.59 

6.120 

1894.. 

95 

114 

14,  .577 

1869.. 

73 

118 

4.651 

1895 . . 

96 

102 

14,926 

1870.. 

96 

H9 

5, 868 

1896., 

97 

141 

16,735 

1871.. 

82 

119 

7,494 

1897.. 

101 

124 

18,fi07 

1872.. 

87 

160 

7,771 

1898.. 

101 

112 

18,510 

1873.. 

63 

122 

5,761 

1899.. 

97 

110 

17,403 

1874.. 

73 

184 

6;  713 

l9no.. 

99 

121 

17,762 

1875.. 

71 

260 

7. 063 

1901.. 

100 

116 

18.305 

1876.. 

96 

229 

7.401 

1902 . . 

101 

1.32 

17,009 

1877 . . 

73 

279 

8.010 

1903.. 

91 

112 

16.478 

1878.. 

7.5 

226 

7,491 

1901 . . 

97 

122 

16.946 

1879.. 

.55 

195 

6.112 

1905.. 

97 

lio 

17.440 

1880.. 

7.5 

225 

8,424 

1906.. 

101 

119 

17.9.38 

1881 . . 

69 

147 

7,638 

1907 . . 

99 

117 

17.540 

1882.. 

66 

151 

6,557 

190S . . 

102 

128 

20, 132 

The  figures  of  this  table  show  more  clearly  than  could  otherwise  be 
presented  how  thoroughly  the  county  institute  is  estaldished  in  Illinois. 
For  more  than  fifty  years  it  has  been  officially  recognized  as  an  efficient 
means  of  preparing  men  and  women  for  the  work  of  teaching.  Since 
1883  superintendents  have  been  required  to  hold  an  annual  institute. 
There  are  one  hundred   and  two   counties  in  the   State.     The   figures 


*   Twentieth  Biennial   Report,   Superintendent   Public  Instruction,    Illinois,    1893- 
94,   pages  LXXIX-LXXXI. 


•21?) 

showing  the  mimhor  of  counties  in  which  the  institutes  are  held  seem 
to  indicate  that  all  county  suj^crintendents  do  not  comply  with  this  re- 
quirement. It  will  appear  that  the  figures  under  "■'counties'*  in  the  table 
sl^ould  be  one  hundred  and  two  in  each  year.  The  apparent  discrepancy 
i*:.  due  to  the  fact  that  two  annual  institutes  of  a  county  may  be  held 
v,  jthin  the  same  school  year  and  thus  for  the  year  preceding  or  following 
that  county  may  be  reported  as  having  no  institute.  In  general,  it  may 
be  said  that  every  county  in  Illinois"  has  a  county  teachers'  institute. 

While  there  has  been  from  the  beginning  a  gTadual  increase  of  at- 
tendance upon  institutes,  it  will  be  observed  that  a  larger  number  is 
reported  for  1897  than  for  any  year  since  that  time  except  1908. 
Slight  differences  may  here  be  due  also  to  the  method  of  reporting. 
Still,  since  the  number  of  teachers  in  the  State,  according. to  the  re- 
port of  1908,  is  28,524,  and  since  due  allowance  must  be  made  for  a 
1  irge  nu]nber  of  persons  enrolled  in  the  institute  who  are  not  teachers 
but  prospective  teachers  or  visitors,  it  may  safely  be  said  that  ten  thou- 
sand teachers  in  Illinois  do  not  attend  the  institutes. 


214 


THE  PURPOSE  AND  VALUE  OF  THE  COUNTY  TEACHERS 

INSTITUTE. 


The  primary  purpose  of  a  teachers'  institute  is  to  secure  hetter  teach- 
ing. The  first  consideration,  therefore,  should  be  the  needs  of  the 
teachers  in  the  county  in  which  the  institute  is  held,  for  in  the  train- 
ing of  teachers,  as  in  all  educational  work,  the  place  to  begin  is  with 
the  ideas  and  interests  of  those  who  are  to  be  trained  or  instructed.  The 
institutes  of  a  state  in  which  the  majority  of  teachers  are  graduates  of 
colleges,  universities  or  normal  schools,  as  in  Massachusetts  and  Cali- 
fornia, should  not  be  identical  in  aim  or  method  with  the  institutes  of 
a  state  in  which  teachers  have  received  inadequate  academic  and  little 
or  no  professional  preparation.  It  would  be  unpedagogical,'  therefore, 
as  well  as  futile,  to  lay  down  .the  specific  purposes  of  the  county  in- 
stitute with  the  expectation  or  the  idea  that  all  institutes  should  con- 
form to  them.  We  may,  however,  consider  with  benefit  the  question  as 
to  Avhat  the  main  purpose  of  county  institutes  should  be,  taking  into 
consideration  the  opportunity  of  teachers  for  professional  and  academic 
training  and  the  requirements  that  are  to  be  made  of  them. 

All  who  become  teachers  in  the  schools  should  have  a  high  school 
training  or  its  equivalent,  and  should  have  passed  a  successful  examin- 
ation in  English,  the  principles  and  methods  of  teaching,  and  the  sub- 
jects of  the  elementary  school  curriculum.  To  continue  in  the  work 
of  teaching  they  should  acquire,  during  the  next  four  years,  professional 
training  at  the  rate  of  nine  weeks  per  year,  or  be  subjected  to  new  ex- 
aminations. Provision  would  thereby  be  made  for  fair  academic  prep- 
aration by  the  teacher  and  probably  a  modicum  of  professional  training. 
This  preparation  and  training  should  be  acquired  in  schools  recognized 
by  the  State  educational  authorities  as  properly  equipped  for  the  pur- 
].>ose.  Instruction  in  an  institute  should  receive  no  recognition.  The 
institutes  of  the  most  advanced  states  may.  in  the  future,  it  is  hoped, 
safely  neglect  to  some  extent  the  provisions  of  instruction  in  the 
branches  to  be  taught,  and  to  some  extent  also  instruction  in  the  prin- 
ciples and  methods  of  teaching,  for  both  of  these  forms  of  instruction 
niay  be  obtained  elsewhere. 

Again,  a  higher  standard  of  academic  and  professional  requirements 
implies  a  corresponding  increase  in  teachers'  wages.  With  better  wages 
nnd  with  the  opportunities  provided  by  normal  schools  and  colleges, 
teachers  may  equip  themselves  for  their  work,  and  should  not  be  ex- 


215 

cused  from"  so  doing  on  account  of  attendance  upon  institutes.  The 
institute  can  in  no  sense  be  a  substitute  for  the  college  or  the  normal 
school.  Page's  definition  of  an  institute  as  "a  normal  school  having 
a  very  short  course  of  study,"*  is  misleading.  Instruction  in  the  sub- 
ject to  be  taught,  in  the  principles  and  methods  of  teaching,  and  in  the 
work  of  organizing,  managing  and  governing  schools,  may  be  given, 
perhaps  ought  to  be  given,  and  will  probably  be  given  in  any  case,  but 
this  should  not  be  the  main  purpose  of  the  institute. 

Eecognizing  then  that  the  requirements  of  teachers  may,  and  prob- 
ably will  for  a  long  time,  make  it  advisable  to  devote  a  considerable 
amount  of  attention  in  the  institute  to  the  matter  of  extending  the 
teacher's  knowledge  of  special  branches  and  in  perfecting  skill  in 
methods  of  instruction,  we  still  insist  that  the  institute  should  not  be 
conducted  primarily  for  these  ends.  The  main  purpose  of  the  insti- 
tute is  to  stimiilate  the  desire  of  teachers  for  professional  excellence 
so  that  they  will  be  impelled  to  increase  their  professional  knowledge 
and  skill  in  schools  established  primarily  for  that  purpose.  The  chief 
emphasis  must  therefore  be  laid  upon  developing  in  the  minds  of  those 
who  attend  the  institute,  true  conceptions  in  regard  to  the  science 
and  art  of  education  and  the  dignity  and  nobility  of  the  work  of  the 
teacher ;  upon  inciting  in  the  teacher,  and  the  public  generally,  an 
enthusiasm  for  education;  upon  promoting  a  professional  spirit  and  an 
esprit  clii  corps  which  will  raise  to  the  maximum  the  practical  efficiency 
of  the  teachers  of  the  county. 

As  to  the  benefits,  general  and  special,  which  may  be  derived  from 
the  county  institute  they  seem  in  this  day  to  be  too  obvious  to  need 
special  argument  or  emphasis.  It  may  be  interesting,  however,  .and 
it  ought  to  be  inspiring,  to*  read  what  a  former  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction  in  Illinois  thought  and  wrote  on  this  subject  fifty 
years  ago.  In  his  report  of  1859-GO,  Newton  Bateman  argued  for  a 
more  systematic  plan  of  organizing  and  conducting  county  institutes 
and  urged  the  Ijegislature  to  vote  them  lilieral  State  support.  His 
remarks  are  quite  as  applicable  now  as  they  were  then.  "The  benefits 
of  these  conventions,"  said  he,  "to  the  teaclicrs  wlio  attend  them,  and 
to  the  schools  and  community,  are  incalculable.  The  advantages  to 
the  teachers  are  general  and  special,  professional  and  social.  Through 
the  lectures  and  addresses  of  eminent  educators  and  schoj-irs,  tl'ov  ob- 
tain broadi'r  and  clearer  views  of  the  laws  of  mental  development,  and 
the  true  philosophy  of  teachincf.  They  learn  that  the  laws  of  mnterial 
growth  are  not  more  immutable  than  those  of  intellectual  growth,  and 
that  the  mental  faculties  always  unfold  in  a  fixed  and  regular  order  of 
succession,  first  the  perceptive,  then  the  reflective,  etc..  and  that  a  dis- 
regard or  reversal  of  this  natural  order  by  the  teacher,  must  result 
in  failure,  or  such  a  perversion  and  distortion  of  the  intellectual  powers 
of  the  child  as  would  be  worse  than  failure.  They  learn  that  manv 
teachers  do  not  succeed,  because  they,  themselves,  have  never  been 
educated ;  because  they  have  mistaken  mere  knowledge  for  discipline ; 

•  Page  on  Teaching,   p.   310. 


216 

the  power  of  renienibering  and  knowing,  for  the  power  of' methodical 
thinking  and  reasoning;  the  knowledge  of  a  thousand  isolated  facts, 
for  the  master}-  of  a  single  all-embracing  principle.  They  learn  that 
to  be  a  truly  successful  teacher,  involves  more  than  they  had  ever 
dreamed  of  before — that,  while  anybody  can  "keep  school,"  none  but  a 
scholar,  and,  to  some  extent  a  philosopher,  can  educate.  They  learn 
that  to  equal  the  extreme  delicacy  and  skill  required  to  wisely  direct 
the  invisible  forces  of  the  brain  and  heart — to  fully  comprehend  the 
sweep  of  their  responsibilities,  the  issues  of  character  and  destiny  that 
depend  upon  their  forming  hand,  and  go  down  the  ages  to  bless  or 
curse  the  race;  that  for  all  this,  a  range  of  scholarship,  a  precision  of 
judgment  and  discrimination,  and  a  philosophic  symmetry  of  culture  are 
demanded,  which  challenge  to  the  utmost,  the  best  powers  of  the  best 
minds  in  the  country.  Teachers  who  have  never  before  rightly  estimated 
the  importance  and  difficulty  of  their  work,  are  thus  led  to  judge  of 
their  own  attainments  by  the  light  of  a  true  standard,  to  "magnify  their 
office,"  and  put  forth  the  needful  efforts  to  become  teachers  indeed. 

It  is  a  fact  which  can  not  be  denied,  that  comparatively  few  teachers 
and  school  officers  really  laiow  what  sort  of  an  education  they  are  pro- 
viding; whether  it  is  well  or  ill-adapted  to  the  purpose  intended;  whether 
it  is  founded  upon  the.  unchanging  principles  of  mental,  progress,  or  up- 
on crude  theories,  half  digested  schemes,  and  superficial  views  of  the 
philosophy  of  mind.  Few,  comparatively,  are  aware  that  there  are  any 
well  settled  maxims  upon  Avhich,  as  an  immutable  basis,  the  whole  super- 
structure of  all  sound  culture  must  rest.  And  hence,  men  who  can 
"keep  the  children  still"  six  hours  a  day,  and  hear  them  "say  their 
lessons,"  are  deemed  fit  to  be  teachers.  At  the  institute>  the  fallacy 
of  these  views  is  exposed,  and  their  mischievous  results  are  pointed 
•out.  The  truth  is  there  demonstrated,  that  the  fundamental  princi- 
ples of  all  correct  teaching,  by  which  the  work  of  education  must  be 
•conducted,  may  be  as  clearly  understood,  and  are  as  unalterable  as  the 
laws  of  light  by  which  the  telescope  is  constructed,  or  the  rules  of  per- 
spective and  coloring  by  which  the  canvas  is  made  to  l)lush  with  beauty; 
that  the  attempt  to  teach  without  a  knowledge  of  the  former,  is  as 
absurd  as  to  attempt  the  combination  of  lenses  or  the  production  of  a 
picture  without  a  knowledge  of  the  latter,  and  far  more  disastrous  in 
its  effects. 

But  not  only  are  teachers"  institutes  of  groat  value  as  conducive 
to  a  more  adequate  conception  of  the  exalted  character  of  the  work 
and  the  broad  pliilnsophic  priuciples  upon  whicli  it  must  be  conducted, 
but  also  in  affording  direct  assistance  in  ]jarticular  cases;  in  aiding 
the  teacher  in  the  specific  lal>ors  and  ])r;uti(al  difficulties  of  the  school 
room. 

It  often  happens  that  tlie  teacher  is  in  doubt  about  some  point  in 
grammar,  some  principle  in  science,  some  problem  in  mathematics, 
or  some  question  of  government.  The  cloud  may  have  remained  for 
years,  and  the  point  over  which  it  rested  have  been  anticipated  with 
uneasiness,  and  passed  with  misgiving  and  dissatisfaction.  The  teacher 
is  troubled  by  the  consciousness  that  he  does  not  clearly  comprehend 


2ir 

the  subject  himself,  and  of  course  cannot  make  it  plain  to  others — the 
thought  haunts  and  depresses  him.  This  is  not  a  fancy  picture;  it  is 
confirmed  by  the  experience  of  many  teachers.  Now,  let  that  teacher 
go  to  an  institute  and  state  his  difficulty,  and,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten, 
he  will  find,  among  the  shrewd  and  experienced  teachers  present,  a 
complete  solution  of  the  mystery;  the  cloud  is  gone,  and  he  will  return 
to  his  school  with  a  light  heart,  no  longer  obliged  to  slur  over  or  pre- 
tend to  explain  what  he  knows  he  does  not  understand.  And  then,  too, 
the  same  answer  that  satisfied  his  mind,  may  have  removed  the  difficul- 
ties from  a  score  of  other  minds,  and  thus  the  teaching  in  half  the 
schools  of  a  county  is  improved  by  that  single  solution  at  that  institute. 

An  instance  in  point  now  occurs.  There  was  a  teacher  who  did  not 
clearly  apprehend  the  philosophy  of  the  rule  for  taking  the  cube  root. 
While  he  could  readily  apply  the  rule  in  working  examples,  he  never  had 
understood  it,  and  well  knew  that  he  had  not,  despite  his  bold  assur- 
ance in  the  presence  of  his  class.  When  at  last  the  veil  was  lifted,  and 
the  clear  light  of  positive  knowledge  broke  upon  his  mind,  as  he  saw  the 
principle  demonstrated,  at  an  institute,  by  the  aid  of  an  algebraic  bi- 
nomial cube,  his  delight  could  scarcely  be  restrained.  Archimedes  never 
shouted  'T  have  found  it"  more  joyfully. 

Then,  again,  it  often  happens  that  there  are  particular  subjects  which 
the  teacher  is  unable  to  illustrate  and  teach  successfully,  although  he 
thoroughly  understands  them.  He  resorts  to  various  expedients,  but 
the  best  method,  the  "happy  thought,"  does  not  occur  to  him — he  can 
not  reproduce  upon  the  blackboard,  or  in  words,  the  clear  outlines  of 
the  picture  as  it  exists  in  his  own  mind,  and  is  compelled  to  witness 
the  unsatisfied  expression  of  his  pupils,  but  too  plainly  assuring  him 
that  he  has  not  succeeded.  Xone  but  a  teacher  who  has  felt  the  burden  of 
such  an  inability  to  explain  to  others  what  he  knows  that  he  himself  com- 
prehends, can  appreciate  the  sense  of  relief  experienced,  when  the  felic- 
itous hint  of  some  brother  teacher  at  an  institute,  reveals  the  "better  way" 
in  a  moment,  and  ends  the  trouble  forever. 

And  what  is  true  respecting  the  manner  of  presenting  and  illustrat- 
ing particular  points  in  the  several  branches  of  study,  is  equally  true 
of  the  general  method  of  teaching  the  whole  subject.  Many  teachers 
entirely  fail  in  the  attempt  to  teach  geography,  history,  etc.,  not  be- 
cause they  lack  a  fair  knowledge  of  those  subjects,  but  because  they  do 
not  know  how  to  present  them  to  others;  they  are  ignorant  of  the  best 
methods  or  have  adopted  vicious  ones  in  their  stead.  It  is  the  province 
of  the  teachers'  institute  to  discuss  methods  of  teaching,  expose  the 
faulty,  to  demonstrate  and  vindicate  the  wise  and  true. 

Ignorance,  and  false  ideas  of  the  nature,  ends  and  means  of  school 
government,  are  sources  of  greai  perplexity,  and  the  proximate  causes 
of  disaster  to  many  a  young  teacher.  Skill  in  school  discipline  conies 
from  experience  only.  There  is,  indeed,  great  diversity  of  natural 
gifts  in  this  respect.  Some  men  have  a  quick  perception  of  the  subtle 
springs  of  thought  and  action,  and  a  power  of  guidance  and  control  to 
which  other  men  can  never  attain.     But  the  truth  remains,  that  effici- 


218 

ency  aud  tact  in  directing  the  \\a3\\ard  impulses,  diverse  natures,  and 
complex  mental,  moral  aud  physical  manifestations  of  youth,  spring 
not  from  intuition,  but  are  developed  gradually,  by  trial.  The  great 
importance  of  this  department  of  the  teacher  s  duly  can  hardly  be 
over-estimated.  How  many  children  are  seriously  injured,  if  not  hope- 
lessly ruined,  by  the  ignorance  or  indiscretion  of  teachers  in  matters 
of  discipline;  how  many  schools  have  been  broken  up,  how  many  com- 
munities have  been  embroiled  in  angry  strife  and  vindictive  litigation 
from  the  same  cause.  jS'o  other  one  subject  receives  a  larger  share  of 
careful  examination  at  .an  institute,  than  school  government.  All  the 
diil'crent  systems  are  compared;  the  various  methods,  motives  and  ex- 
pedients adopted  by  the  several  members  of  the  association,  in  their 
dill'erent  helds  of  labor,  are  brought  to  view,  and  the  bearings  and  re- 
sults of  each  rigidly  scrutinized,  and  its  claims  to  favor  admitted  or 
rejected  according  to  its  character  and  fruits.  Particular  examples  of 
special  difficulty  are  cited,  and  the  mode  of  treatment  pursued,  Avith 
its  effects,  minutely  narrated.  Now,  into  what  a  school  of  improve- 
ment is  the  young  teacher  here  introduced,  what  wealth  of  suggestion 
is  here  presented  to  him,  what  variety  of  experience,  what  affluence  of 
hints  and  expedients.  He  can  hardly  fail,  in  the  multitude  of  cases 
reported  and  of  resources  and  principles  discussed,  to  find  some  ex- 
actly apposite  to  his  own  need;  and  thus,  in  a  sense,  he  anticipates  the 
results  of  his  own  experience,  and  becomes  fortified,  by  the  combined 
wisdom  and  experience  of  all  his  associates,  against  the  day  of  trial  in 
his  own  school.  He  acquires,  in  a  single  week,  knowledge  of  inestimable 
value,  for  which  he  might  otherwise  have  waited  for  years,  and  for 
want  of  which  he  might  have  groped  and  blundered  and  failed.  It  is 
to  him  as  if  he  had  visited,  in  person,  all  the  schools  represent-ed  in  the 
institute,  and  noted  for  himself  the  results  in  each;  a  course,  the  time 
and  expense  of  which  no  teacher  can  aiford. 

The  professional  spirit,  the  "esprit  du  corps,"  is  quickened  by  these 
associations.  Teachers  are  made  to  feel  that  they  belong  to  an  organ- 
ized and  honorable  profession;  to  attain  a  front  rank  in  which,  they 
are  stimulated,  by  a  laudable  ambition,  to  put  forth  renewed  efforts. 
The  standard  of  professional  knowledge  and  skill  is  elevated ;  the  worthy 
and  the  industrious  are  recognized  and  encouraged,  while  pretenders 
and  drones  are  detected  and  disowned.  Thus  -the  ranks  of  the  pro- 
fession are  sifted  and  purified.  The  views  of  different  authors  who 
have  written  on  the  subject  of  teaching,  are  fully  canvassed,  courses 
of  professional  reading  are  suggested  to  the  teacher,  and  suitable  books 
for  teachers'  libraries  are  designated.  No  teacher  can  maintain  his 
position  in  this  day,  who  does  not  read  and  study  an_^^think,  as  well 
as  teach. 

Again,  the  social  advantages  flowing  from  these  frequent  reunions 
of  teachers,  are  eminently  deserving  of  notice.  The  position  of  the 
teacher,  except  in  large  towns  and  cities,  is  comparatively  isolated,  and 
many  a  sensitive  spirit  feels  this  most  keenly.  His  life-path  is  remote 
from  the  din  of  commerce,  the  busy  avenues  of  trade,  and  the  exciting 
arena  of  politics.     There  are,  it  is  true,  advantages  in  this;  the  mind 


219 

and  heart  are  more  tranquil,  more  in  harmony  with  the  calm  pursuits 
of  knowledge  and  instruction  to  which  his  life  is  devoted.  But,  man 
is  a  social  being,  and  none  have  more  need  of  genial  converse  and  sym- 
pathy, of  intercourse  with  those  of  kindred  tastes  and  pursuits,  than 
teachers.  Their  trials  and  enjoyments  are  peculiar — they  have  hours 
of  sorrow  and  gladness,  into  which  none  can  enter  save  those  who  have 
known  the  same.  A  sense  of  loneliness  and  isolation  often  comes  over 
the  minds  of  teachers,  especially  of  such  as  pursue  their  vocation  in 
sequestered  rural  districts.  This  often  results  in  morbid  sensitiveness, 
or  confirmed  despondency.  Against  such  tendencies,  there  is  no  an- 
tidote equal  in  effect  to  the  enthusiasm,  the  sparkling  spirits,  the  cor- 
dial sympathy,  the  mental  life,  the  ceaseless  friction  and  flash  of  in- 
tellect, evoked  by  a  well-conducted  teachers'  institute.  By  a  sort  of 
spiritual  '"induction,"  the  electric  current  generated  by  the  contact  of 
associated  minds,  acts  and  reacts,  till  it  permeates  and  vivifies  the  whole. 
Finding  that  others  have  experienced  equal  or  greater  trials,  each  takes 
courage  to  endure  or  triumph  over  his  own.  The  friendships  formed  at 
the  institute  are  often  most  pleasant  and  profitable,  and  lasting  as 
life.  Here  the  habits,  manners,  tastes,  are  improved  and  refined. 
Egotism,  conceit,  narrowness,  and  bigotry,  to  which  teachers  are  supposed 
by  some  to  be  peculiarly  exposed  from  being  long  accustomed  to  deal  with 
children.,  by  whom,  their  superiority  is  habitually  acknowledged  give 
place  to  broader  views,  and  humbler  self-estimates.  From  the  same 
cause,  the  tone  of  thought  and  feeling  assumes  a  stronger  and  manlier 
type.  The  whole  character,  in  brief,  is  elevated,  strengthened  and  dig- 
nified. 

But  if  the  teachers  only  were  benefited  by  institutes,  the  argument 
in  their  favor,  though  unanswerable,  would  be  shorn  of  much  of  its 
real  strength.  Such  is  not  the  case,  nor  indeed  is  it  possible  that  it 
should  be.  To  say  that  the  schools  themselves'  must  share  in  all  the 
advantages  accruing  to  the  teachers,  is  to  state  a  seTf-evident  .truth. 
The  relation  of  the  former  to  the  latter,  is  simply  that  of  the  stream 
to  the  fountain.  The  effects  upon  the  school  of  a  soimder  philosophy, 
a  broader  culture,  and  a  higher  aim  in  the  teachers,  are  as  immediate 
and  refreshing  as  those  of  showers  and  sunshine  upon  the  parched  and 
sterile  soil.  Order  springs  from  confusion,  energy  from  stagnation, 
intellectual  life  from  intellectual  death,  as  by  the  wand  of  a  magician. 
The  new  life  of  the  teacher  is  communicated  to  the  scholars,  and  pene- 
trates the  school  in  all  its  interests,  through  and  through.  Not  a  new 
idea,  a  valuable  hint,  or  a  clearer  knowledge  of  any  subject,  is  received 
by  the  teacher  at  the  institute,  which  is  not  imparted  to  the  pupils,  or 
used  for  the  improvement  of  the  school.  All  his  increase  of  capital, 
of  whatsoever  sort  it  may  be,  is  at  once  invested,  and  becomes  immed- 
iately, richly  and  permanently  productive. 

Finallv,  and  as  a  sequence  from  the  reasons  already  advanced,  the 
argmnent  for  the  utility  of  teachers'  institutes  culminates  in  the  good 
results  following  from  them  to  the  community  at  large,  and  to  the 
general  interests  of  education.  All  the  exercises  and  discussions  are 
open,  not  orilv  to  teachers,  but  to  school  officers,  parents,  and  the  friends 


220 

of  common  schools,  without  distinction.  The  iiu'ctiii^is  are  always  at- 
tended by  large  numbers  of  persons  who  are  not  teachers,  but  who  are 
deeply  interested  in  the  success  of  our  system  of  public  instruction. 
Among  the  good  results  which  accrue  to  the  community  directly  and 
necessarily,  from  the  presence  of  the  citizens  at  these  dt'liberations,  are 
the  following: 

1. .  The  public  mind  is  aroused  to  the  transcendent  importaiice  of 
the  subject  of  education.  No  obstacle  to  the  progress  of  free  schools 
is  so  formidable  as  the  profound  indifference  and  apathy  of  the  people. 
The  most  convincing  logic,  the  most  moving  appeals,  learning  the  most 
jorofound,  eloquence  the  most  persuasive  and  captivating,  will  all  be 
lost  upon  those  who  do  not  perceive  the  necessity  and  value  of  the 
measures  proposed  for  their  adoption.  But,  let  the  vastness  of  the  is- 
sues involved  be  clearly  seen,  and  felt  to  be  commensurate  with  the 
earnestness  of  the  invocation  to  duty,  and  men  will  act.  So  it  is  in 
educational  work.  The  people  are  indifferent.  They  can  be  indifferent, 
only  because  they  do  not  apprehend  as  a  clear  and  definite  reality,  the 
momentous  interests  to  themselves,  their  children  and  their  country 
which  cluster  around  the  question  of  universal  education.  But  let  the 
truth  he  presented  in  its  real  colors,  its  own  simple  greatness,  and  there 
will  be  an  end  of  indifference.  Let  the  relation  of  universal  intelligence 
and  virtue  to  the  welfare  of  the  country  and  the  fate  of  the  Republic 
Ije  pointed  out — let  the  peril  of  entrusting  the  destinies  of  a  government 
like  ours,  the  principles  of  which  are  embodied  in  written  constitutions 
and  laws,  to  the  arbitration  of  masses  who  are  unable  to  read  and  write 
be  brought  home  to  the  mind — let  the  fact  be  demonstrated  that  trusts 
and  responsibilities,  vaster  in  extent,  and  more  sacred  in  character  than 
were  ever  before  committed  to  any  people,  are  in  the  providence  of  God, 
committed  to  us,  and  that  the  most  momentous  question  that  can  be 
propounded  to  this  age  is:  Have  we  wisdom  and  virtue  enough  to 
redeem  those  trusts  and  discharge  those  responsibilities?  Let  the  ap- 
palling certainty  that  if  we  neglect  the  education  of  our  children,  if 
we  do  not  teach  them  how^  to  use  the  blessings  of  lil)crty,  we  shall  perish 
by  a  deeper  and  more  terrible  perdition  than  ever  yet  befell  any  people, 
be  impressed  upon  the  public  heart  and  conscience.  Let  all  this  be 
done,  and  the  people  will  rally  round  the  cause  of  education  with  beat- 
ing hearts  and  trembling  hopes  and  a  devotion  scarcely  surpassed  by 
that  which  the  ancient  Israelites  lavished  upon  the  Ark  of  God.  And 
all  this  it  is  the  province  of  a  well-conducted  teachers'  institute  to  ac- 
complish. 

2.  A  true  standard  is  set  before  the  people,  by  which  they  can  de- 
termine the  qualifications  of  teachers,  and  the  character  of  schools. 
That  good  schools  and  competent  teachers  are  the  exception,  in  the 
State,  and  not  the  rule,  can  not  be  denied.  The  reason  of  this  is  to 
be  found,  to  a  great  extent,  in  the  equally  undenial)le  fact,  that  very 
few,  comparatively,  have  a  clear  conception  of  what  constitutes  a  good 
teacher  and  a  good  school — of  what  elements  must  form  the  one,  and 
what  principles  must  govern  the  other.     Hence,   directors  and   other 


221 

school  officers,  having  no  definite  knowledge,  no  well-settleii  princi- 
ples, no  fixed  land-marks  to  guide  their  action,  will  be  as  likely  to  go 
wrong  as  right,  to  make  an  unwise  choice  of  teachers,  and  indorse  false 
views  of  instruction  anxl  discipline  as  to  secure  the  best  teachers  and  the 
Ijest  methods  of  instruction.  None  but  he,  wlio  has  a  cultivated  eye  and 
a  knowledge  of  art,  would  be  trusted  to  select  a  gallery  of  paintings — 
a  merchant  would  not  employ. a  farmer  to  purchase  his  goods,  nor  the 
latter  confide  to  the  judgment  of  the  former  the  management  of  his 
estates.  But  the  results  in  each  of  these  cases  would  be  as  likely  to  be 
satisfactory  and  fortunate,  as  those  which  ensue  from  the  false  standard, 
or  blind  clioice  of  school  officers.  It  is  not  pretended  that  the  unlettered 
and  the  non-professional  can  become  adepts  in  science  and  in  the  phi- 
losophy of  teaching,  by  merely  attending  an  institute,  nor  is  this  es- 
sential to  the  end  in  view.  But  it  is  confidently  claimed,  that  many 
false  ideas  will  be  removed,  that  many  guiding  principles  will  be  clearly 
established,  that  great  progress  wall  be  made  towards  a  clearer  judgment 
and  a  wiser  policy.  Xo  man,  I  care  not  how  humble  his  intellect  or 
alien  his  pursuits,  can  retire  from  a  w^ell  organized  institute,  upon  the 
exercises  of  which  he  has  closely  attended,  wdthout  information  which 
will  make  him  a  better  director,  and  a  more  intelligent  friend  of  educa- 
tion, for  the  rest  of  his  life.  All  who  attend  will  be  benefited  more  or 
Ic.-s — all  w  ill  be  firmer  in  their  support  of  a  wise,  and  efficient  policy, 
hceauee  all  will  better  understand  what  such  a  policy  is.  But,  grant  that 
only  a  few,  after  all,  can  be  sufficiently  enlightened  in  the  principles, 
an(l  instructed  in  the  details  of  the  subject,  to'become  competent  leaders 
in  the  educational  work;  enough  at  least  of  the  nature,  importance  and 
difficulty  of  the  work,  can  be  learned  by  all  to  demonstrate  the  wisdom 
of  committing  the  management  of  it  to  those  few,  and  that  alone  would 
\)v  a  gain  of  vast  importance.  For  it  is  an  almost  universal  truth  that 
the  most  ignorant  are  the  most  confident;  the  most  incompetent  are 
the  most  self-sufficient.  A  decisive  step  in  the  right  direction  has  been 
taken,  therefore,  when  a  community  is  brought  to  see  that  something 
snore  than  moral  honesty  and  mere  business  capacity  is  required  in  a 
school  commissioner,  a  school  director  and  a  teacher,  and  seeing  this, 
to  consent  that  the  best  qualified,  and  no  others,  shall  fill  those  difficult 
])ositions.  It  is  not  conceded,  however,  that  tlie  exercises  of  the  institute 
do  not  furnish  the  intelligent  non-professional  observer  with  reliable 
data  for  an  acurate  estimate  of  the  teacher's  abilities,  in  some  important 
particulars.  He  can  form  a  correct  judgment  of  his  aptness  in  teaching 
and  ability  to  illustrate  with  felicity.  These  qualities  by  no  means  al- 
ways accompany  adequate  scJiolarship. 

While  it  may  be  true,  as  a  general  rule,  that  a  man  can  state  clearly 
what  he  understands  clearly,  and,  hence,  that  inaliility  to  explain  is 
prima  facie  evidence  of  imperfect  knowledge,  still  the  exceptions  to 
this  are  very  numerous.  It  can  not  be  doubted  that  the  powers  of 
language  and  of  imagination,  by  which  apposite  symbols  and  pictures 
of  truth  are  summoned  at  the  moment  of  need,  are  so  limited  in  some 
men.  of  whose  learning  there  is  no  question,  that  they  can  not  succeed 
as  teachers.    Whatever  the  cause,  the  defect  is  a  most  serious  one.    Now, 


222 

it  is  not  too  much  to  say,  that  any  attentive  observer  of  the  proceedings 
of  an  institute  can  know,  infallibiy,  wlietlier  a  teacher  jjossesses  this 
qualification  or  not,  so  far  as  relates  to  subjects  within  the  range  of  his 
own  eojnprehension.  If  it  is  an  exercise  in  arithmetic,  for  example,  he 
knows  wnether  the  teacher  makes  it  clear  to  his  own  mind,  or  not — 
whether  the  illustrations  are  pertinent  and  forcible,  or  not — and  know- 
ing this  in  his  own  case,  he  can  reason,  from  himself  to  others.  Nor 
is  it  material,  so  far  as  a  knowledge  of  the  fact  is  concerned, -whether 
the  cause  be  defective  scholarship,  or  a  peculiarity  of  mental  consti- 
tution— Avhether  the  teacher  ''knows  but  can  not  tell,"  or  does  not 
know,  and  therefore  can  not  tell.  So  in  grammar,  geography,  history, 
reading,  etc.,  the  observer  knows  whether  the  exercises  are  rendered  per- 
spicuous and  interesting  to  him  or  not,  and  can  form  his  judgment  ac- 
cordingly. So  also,  in  questions  of  discipline,  etc.,  it  is  easy  to  see 
whether  the  principles  and  methods  advocated  are  wise  and  prudent. 
Thus  by  hearing  fundamental  principles  examined  and  demonstrated 
at  the  institutes  by  able  and  experienced  men — by  comparing  the  efforts 
of  the  members  with  these  established  principles,  and  noting  the  success 
or  failure  of  each  teacher,  the  people  have  placed  before  them  a  correct 
standard,  theoretical  and  practical,  by  which  they  can  judge  of  the 
essential  elements  of  good  schools  and  competent  teachers.  The  bene- 
fits that  will  redound  to  the  commimity  from  this  improved  capacity 
of  school  officers  and  the  people,  to  estimate  the  wants  of  the  schools, 
and  the  conditions  of  success,  are  incalculable.  A  new  order  of  things 
will  ensue.  Higher  ideas  will  prevail.  With  the  knowledge  .of  the 
vast  distance  between  good  schools  and  bad  ones,  the  latter  will  rapidly 
cease  to  be  tolerated.  Pompous  mediocrity  and  blustering  assurance 
will  give  place  to  sound  scholarship  and  modest  worth.  Masters  in  the 
art  of  teaching  will  be  employed,  and  well  paid,  while  sciolists  and 
smatterers  will  not  be  allowed  at  any  price.  The  truth  that  the  best 
schools  are  in  the  end  the  cheapest — that  no  district  can  afford  to  pur- 
chase the  services  of  an  incompetent  teacher,  will  advance  towards  uni- 
versal recognition. 

3.  Mutual  confidence  and  good  understanding  are  established  be- 
tween the  people,  and  school  officers  and  teachers.  As  the  former 
learn  more  of  the  trials  and  difficulties  of  the  latter,  s*.  spirit  of  sym- 
pathy and  forbearance  is  generated,  and  above  all  the  necessity  of  a 
firm  and  cordial  cooperation  in  all  just  measures  for  the  good  of  the 
schools  is  made  apparent.  Teachers  and  school  officers,  on  the  other 
hand,  often  find  that  they  have  been  betrayed  into  harsh  judgments  of 
the  conduct  of  the  people;  into  wrong  impressions  of  their  motives, 
feelings  and  purposes.  The  fact  is  not  seldom  elicited,  that  what  was 
construed  into  malevolence,  or  bigotry,  or  wanton  interference,  was  in 
fact  only  the  result  of  misapprehension.  Much  that  was  attributed 
to  a  want  of  respect  and  sympathy  is  found  to  be  due  to  a  want  of 
information  only.  And  thus,  mutual  esteem,  unity  of  aim,  and  hearty 
cooperation,  the  great  bulwarks  of  strength  and  success,  are  happily 
secured. 


223 

It 'would  be  eas_v  to  extend  this  line  of  remarks,  and  adduce  other 
equally  weighty  considerations  in  favor  of  sustaining  and  multiplying 
these  simple  agencies  for  the  development  of  our  system  of  public  in- 
struction. Enough  has  been  said,  it  is  confidently  believed,  to  arrest 
the  notice  and  secure  the  candid  examination,  if  not  the  approval  of 
the  representatives  of  the  people  and  friends  of  education.  It  is  im- 
portant, however,  to  add  that  the  views  and  reasonings  now  presented, 
and  to  which  your  favorable  regard  is  respectfully  and  earnestly  in- 
vited, derive  strong  confirmation  from  the  actual  experience  of  the 
past  two  years.  Teachers'  institutes  have  been  held,  during  the  period 
embraced  in  this  je|)ort,  in  about  fifty  counties  in  this  State.  And  the 
facts  authorize  the  emphatic  statement,  that,  wherever  they  have  been 
rif/htly  conducted  by  able  and  experienced  educators,  the  results  have 
amply  vindicated  their  claim  to  the  high  position  here  assigned  to 
them.  They  have  afforded  a  sure  index  of  the  vitality,  condition  and 
progress  of  the  common  school  cause. 

But  this  leads  to  another  and  most  important  view  of  the  subject. 
The  conviction  can  not  be  resisted  by  a  candid  and  well-informed  ob- 
server of  our  educational  affairs,  that  the  condition  italicised  in  the 
above  sentence,  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  realization  of  the  advant- 
ages here  urged  as  the  legitimate  fruits  of  teachers'  institutes — upon 
no  other  condition  can  their  defense  be  maintained  upon  the  high 
ground  here  assumed — upon  no  other  would  I  attempt  it.  To  accom- 
plish the  beneficient  purpose  of  their  organization;  to  justify  the  need- 
ful expenditure  of  time  and  money,  however  small  that  may  be;  to 
realize  the  expectations  of  the  friends  of  education,  the  institutes  must 
be  guided' by  the  counsels  of  wisdom  and  prudence — the  exercises  must 
be  conducted  by  able,  experienced  and  scientific  teachers.  If  the  "blind 
lead  the  blind,"  the  "ditch"  will  be  the  inevitable  destination  of  both. 
The  necessity  of  bringing  to  the  work  the  highest  ability  and  talent 
at  our  command,  must  be  evident  from  the  nature  of  tlie  work  itself. 
An  institute  is  a  school — but  the  pupils  are  teachers.  The  instruction, 
therefore,  to  be  adapted,  must  be  of  a  higher  character,  a  wider  range 
than  that  of  ordinary  schools.  It  must  deal  with  systems  and  principles, 
and  philosophies,  as  well  as  facts  and  details.  Limited  experience  and 
ordinar}'  skill  and  learning  are  not  adequate  for  these  higher  depart- 
ments of  the  work.  There  is,  indeed,  much  for  all  to  do,  and  no  institute 
is  true  to  its  aim  in  which  every  member  does  not  bear  a  part — in  which 
the  powers  of  each  are  not  tested,  and  the  services  of  each  made  to 
contribute  to  the  common  fund  of  improvement.  But  the  imperative 
necessity  of  a  directing  mind,  to  lay  out  the  work,  unfold  the  higher 
principles  of  the  science  of  teaching,  and  hold  the  insiitide  steadily  on 
its  legitimate  course,  is  not  thereby  in  the  least  impaired.  Without  this 
the  institute  would  drift  out  into  the  sea  of  irrelevant  discussion,  or 
waste  its  time  on  unprofitable  trifles,  or  be  led  astray  by  false  philosophy, 
or  degenerate  into  a  scene  of  mere  recreation  and  s])nrt.''* 


*   Third   Biennial    Report,    Superintendent    Public    Instiuction,    Illinois,    1869-70, 
pp.   40-49. 


224 

Organizing  and  Conducting  Jnsti  rriEs. 
The  county  institute  work  of  a  state,  like  its  other  educational  agen- 
cies, should  be  systematized  under  the  executive  head  of  the  school  sys- 
tem. For  this  reason  the  State  Board  of  Education  or  the  Superinten- 
dent of  Public  Instruction  should  be  authorized  and  empowered  to  pro- 
pose plans  for  organizing  and  conducting  institutes.  There  should  be, 
perhaps,  no-  legal  provision  requiring  these  plans  to  be  followed.  County 
superintendents  should  not  be  relieved  of  authority  and  responsibility 
in  regard  to  organizing  and  conducting  their  own  institutes.  The  plans 
l^roposed,  however,  will  be,  or  should  be,  the  product  of  the  most  care- 
ful thought  and  the  most  painstaking  incpiiry  into  the  educational  needs 
and  conditions  of  the  diifei-ent  counties  of  the  State  and  also  the  in- 
stitute experience  of  other  parts  of  the  country.  Being  the  result  of 
such  careful  study  they  should  be  so  suggestive  and  helpful,  and  con- 
sequently so  satisfactory,  that  county  superintendents  will  voluntarily 
adopt  them  and  adapt  them,  as  closely  as  condition:,  will  permit,  in 
organizing  and  conducting  the  institutss  of  their  own  counties.  The 
institute  work  of  the  State  will  thus  tend  to  become  more  and  more 
systenuitic  and  uniform,  and  more  and  more  designed  to  realize  com- 
mon educational  purposes.  County  institutes  are  a  part  of  the  general 
educational  system  of  the  State  and  should  therefore  be  systematized 
to  the  extent  that  system  promotes  efficiency.  It  is  impossible  to  estab- 
lish and  complete  uniformity  and  yet  preserve  those  elements  of  spon- 
taneity and  local  adaptation  which  are  essential  to  a  successful  institute. 
A  rigid  system  attained  at  the  expense  of  local  interest  and  initiative 
is  not  the  kind  of  system  and  uniformity  desired.  The  different  educa- 
tional conditions  of  different  counties  make  it  necessary  that  any  State 
plan  for  organizing  and  conducting  county  institutes  be  more  or  less 
elastic.  This  is  a  sufficient  reason  why,  in  organizing  and  conducting 
institutes,  tlie  relation  of  the  State  Board  of  Education  and  the  Super- 
intendent of  Public  Instruction  to  county  superintendents  should  be 
advisory  and  cooi)erative  r::'.ther  than  authoritative.  On  the  part  of  the 
State  authorities,  however,  it  should  be  an  active  and  nof  a  passive 
relation.  The  l)oard  should  devise  and  pul)lish.  [)lans,  and  then  rely  on 
the  merits  of  these  plans,  and  not  on  its  own  [jower  to  enforce  them,  to 
secure  their  adoption. 

Joint  Institutes. 

In  some  of  the  states  the  law  provides  that  two  or  more  adjoining 
counties  may  hold  an  institute  together.  This  is  a  wise  provision  which 
should  be  taken  advantage  of  more  frequently  than  is  now  the  case  in 
any  of  the  states.  There  are  great  and  obvious  advantages, in  the  union 
of  small  counties  which  -have  a  suitable  meeting  place  easily  accessible 
to  the  teachers,  for  the  purpose  of  holding  an  institute.  There  are  dis- 
advantages, of  course,  but  tlie  advantages  in  the  way  of  economy  in  pro- 
viding institute  instruction,  of  a  l)etter  o])portun"ity  in  securing  instruc- 
tors, and  of  the  enthusiasm  awakened  through  tlie  association  of  a 
larger  number  of  teachers,  far  outweigh  them.     If,  as  should  bo  the 


325 

case,  the  institutes  of  a  state  are  held  Avithin  the  school  period  and  at 
about  the  same  time,  the  holding  of  joint  institutes  will  lessen  the  diffi- 
culty of  securing  a  sufficient  number  of  comiDctent  instructors  to  carry 
on  the  work. 

The  Time  of  Holding  Institutes. 

County  institutes  should  be  held  within  the  school  year,  and  as  soon 
after  the  schools  open  as  practicable.  There  are  several  reasons  why 
this  is  expedient.  They  should  be  held  within  the  school  year  because 
they  constitute  naturally  a  part  of  the  regular  work  of  the  school  year 
and  should  be  so  considered  by  school  officers  and  teachers,  and  by  the 
public  as  well.  This  period  ought  to  be  the  most  convenient  for  the 
county  superintendent,  who  needs  the  summer  vacation  for  the  clerical 
work  of  his  office.  On  the  opening  of  the  schools  he  should  be  free  to 
devote  his  time  to  supervision.  The  institute  is  an  important  if  not 
an  essential  means  to  this  end. 

The  school  period  is  more  convenient  for  the  teachers  also  for  they 
should  have  their  summers  free  to  attend  school,  to  devote  to  private 
study,  rest  and  recreation,  or  to  other  methods  of  self  improvement.  It 
is  hard  to  give  to  an  institute  held  in  the  vacation  period  any  immed- 
iate and  vital  relation  to  the  actual  school  work  of  the  county.  The 
implication  of  a  "summer  institute''  is  that  it  is  held  primarily  for  the 
teachers  and  not  primarily  for  the  schools.  Beginning  teachers  espec- 
ially should  have  the  entire  summer  vacation  for  attending  a  school  which 
provides  special  preparation  for  their  work  as  teachers.  The  certificat- 
ing plan  of  the  commission  requires  an  annually  increasing  amount  of 
professional  preparation.  This  requirement  can  not  be  met  by  attending 
the  institute.  If  the  institute  is  held  within  the  summer  vacation 
teachers  engaged  in  securing  the  required  preparation  can  not  be  present. 
The  present  practice  in  most  counties  is  to  excuse  these  teachers  from 
attending  the  institute.  But  unless  the  objects  of  the  school  and  the  in- 
stitute are  the  same  it  is  desirable  that  all  the  teachers  be  present  in 
the  institute  whether  they  have  attended  school  during  the  summer  or 
not.  The  aim  of  the  institute  is  chiefly  professional  and  immediate. 
A  county  superintendent  can  no  more  aff^ord  to  excuse  a  teacher  from 
attending  than  the  superintendent  of  an  industrial  corporation  whose 
])roductive  efficiency  depends  upon  the  progressive  spirit  and  coopera- 
tion of  individual  men  could  afford  to  excuse  any  of  them  from  attend- 
ing a  meeting  designed  to  promote  the  productive  capacity  of  the  ])lant. 
Again,  if  the  institute  is  held  soon  after  the  opening  of  the  school, 
teachers  come  to  the  institute  with  their  minds  upon  educational  prob- 
lems and  the  practical  difficulties  of  the  school  room.  They  are,  there- 
fore, in  a  more  receptive  mental  attitude  than  they  are  likely  to  be  in 
tlie  summer  vacation.  Teachers  who  are  beginning  the  work  of  the 
school  room  will  have  had  time  enough  to  become  acquainted  with  some 
of  the  difficulties  of  teaching  and  to  have  had  aroused  in  their  mind 
definite   inquiries  in   regard   to   the   methods   of   teaching  and   govern- 

—15  E   C 


226 

ment.  The  experience,  however  brief,  is  necessary  in  order  to  awaken 
the  interest  of  tlie  teachers  to  the  highest  degree  in  the  instruction  and 
work  of  the  institute.  It  is  an  advantage,  too,  to  have  the  teachers  go 
immediately  from  the  institute  to  apply  their  newly  acquired  knowledge 
and  newly  developed  power  in  the  work  of  the  school  room  and  to 
profit  by  the  inspiration  derived  from  the  institute. 

The  chief  difficulty  connected  with  holding  the  institutes  of  the  State 
at  the  time  suggested  is  that  of  securing  a  sufficient  number  of  com- 
petent instructors  to  carry  on  the  work.  There  will  be  many  institutes 
in  session  at  the  same  time.  Xormal  schools  and  universities  will  have 
begun  their  work  for  the  vear  and  consequently  few  from  the  faculties 
fii  these  institutions  will  be  available  for  institute  instruction.  It  may, 
tlierefore,  be  desirable  to  begin  the  institute  work  of  the  State  in  the 
week  preceding  the  opening  of  schools.  But  when  this  is  done  the  in- 
stitute should  be  considered  as  a  part  of  the  school  work  of  the  year. 
Here  is  a  matter  in  which  a  State  director  of  institutes  could  be  of  great 
service  in  helping  to  arrange  the  institutes  of  tlie  State  so  that  about 
the  same  number  of  institutes  might  be  conducted  in  consecutive  weeks. 

Directors  of  Ixstitutes. 

To  the  extent  that  the  State  Board  of  Education  and  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction  are  active  in  assisting  in  the  work  of 
organizing  and  conducting  institutes,  and  in  cooperating  with  county 
superintendents  in  securing  competent  instruction,  there  will  need  to 
be  some  personal  agency  for  carrying  their  will  into  effect.  This  purpose 
will  best  be  served  through  the  appointment  of  a  State  director  or  direc- 
tors of  institutes  who  will  act  under  the  immediate  direction  of  the 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  This  official  should  be  an  ex- 
pert in  all  matters  pertaining  to  teachers'  institutes  and  should  devote  a 
large  part  of  his  time,  if  not  all  of  it,  to  assisting  county  superintendents 
in  organizing  and  conducting  institutes,  to  preparing  outlines  of  courses 
of  instruction,  to  consulting  county  superintendents,  and  to  devising 
general  plans  to  increase  the  economy  and  efficiency  of  the  institute 
work  of  the  State.  He  should  give  instniction  in  as  many  institutes  as 
possible.  If  any  part  of  his  time  is  not  required  in  the  duties  just 
mentioned,  his  services  could  be  employed  in  the  inspection  of  schools. 

Under  the  topic  ''County  Institutes  of  Illinois"  it  was  pointed  out 
that  Sii)icrint('ii(lonts  of  Pulilic  Instruction  of  this  State,  beginning  with 
Newton  Bateman,  urged  the  appointment  of  a  State  agent  whose  chief 
function  should  be  to  encourage  the  organization  of  institutes.  The 
organization  of  institutes,  however,  is  no  longer  anywhere  a  subject  of 
State  concern,  since  institutes  are  held  in  every  county  in  all  the 
states.  The  subject  of  greatest  interest  now  in  connection  with  institutes 
is  their  improvement  and  the  organization  of  the  institute  work  of  the 
State  so  as  to  secure  competent  instructors  in  a  sufficient  number  and 
to  promote  desirable  uniformity  in  the  methods  and  aims  of  institute 
instruction.  These  ends  can  be  achieved  only  by  the  careful  super- 
vision of  an  expert  institute  director. 


227 

A  director  of  institutes  should  serve  as  an  institute  instructor  in  as 
man}-  counties  as  possible,  and  in  the  place  of  a  special  instructor  em- 
ployed by  the  county  superintendent,  consequently  he  would  save  to 
the  counties  a  large  part  of  the  salary  he  would  receive  from  the  State. 
The  increased  efficiency  of  institutes  brought  about  by  the  efforts  of 
a  skillful  institute  director  in  conjunction  with  county  -superintendents 
would  far  outweigh  the  expense  of  his  employment.  It  is  a  ease  in  which 
a  small  expenditure  should  effect  a  great  economy.  In  New  York 
five  institute  conductors  are  employed  by  the  state  to  organize  and 
conduct  the  various  teachers'  institutes. 

The  Duration  of  Institutes. 

If  institutes  are  held  within  the  school  period  they  should  continue  not 
to  exceed  five  days.  A  longer  period  is  too  large  a  break  in  the  regular 
work  of  the  schools,  and  is  perhaps  unnecessary  to  accomplish  the  main 
purposes  of  the  institute  unless  these  purposes  are  conceived  as  academic 
rather  than  professional.  If  academic  instruction  were  the  end  aimed 
at  very  little  of  value  could  be  accomplished  in  a  Aveek.  If  under  the 
plan  proposed  the  institute  continued  for  a  longer  time  it  would  be 
likely  to  assume  the  character  of  a  school  for  academic  instruction  and 
thus  tend  to  defeat  the  higher  purposes  of  professional  insight  and  in- 
spiration. 

The   Method  of    Securing   Instructors   and   the   Character   of 

THE  Instruction. 

As  to  the  method  of  securing  instructors  for  institutes,  they  should 
be  secured  by  the  county  superintendent  with  the  concurrence  of  the 

[  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  This  concurrence  should  be 
secured,  however,  before  negotiating  with  an  instructor  and  not  after 
he  has  been  employed,  and  the  matter  of  ascertaining  whether  in  a  given 
case  concurrence  will  be  given  should,  as  a  rule,  rest  with  the  instructor 
himself  and  not  with  the  county  superintendent.  It  will,  therefore,  be 
necessary  for  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  to  keep  and 
publish  a  list  of  the  names  of  all  persons  eligible  to  give  instruction  in 
the  institutes  of  the  State.  The  manner  in  which  this  list  shall  be  pre- 
pared, that  is,  the  standard  of  qualifications  to  be  established  for  those 
who  desire  to  give  institute  instruction  and  the  method  of  determin- 
ing whether  the  standard  is  attained,  should  be  left  with  him  or  the 

_      State  Board  of  Education. 

■  Here  again  is  revealed  the  relation  which  should  exist  between  the 
W  state  educational  authorities  and  the  county  su})erintendents  in  or- 
m     ganizing  and  conducting  the  institutes  of  the  State.     There  should  be 

■  left  with  the  county  superintendent  a   wide  opportunity  for  initiative 

■  and  free  choice  in  the  selection  of  those  who  are  to  instruct  his  teachers. 

■  At  the  same  time  the  Superintendent  of  Public   Instruction  and   the 

■  State  Board  of  Education  should  render  him  all  possible  assistance  and 


22S 

quality  of  instructiou  in  an  institute  is  poor  tlie  institute  must  ueces- 
saxil}-  be  in  part  a  failure.  The  problem  of  securing  competent  in- 
struction is  therefore  the  most  difficult  problem  of  the  institute,  and  no 
available  means  of  arriving  at  a  satisfactory  solution  of  it  should  be 
neglected. 

Jt  is  not  a  difficult  matter  to  secure  instructors  if  no  standard  of 
qualilication  is  erected.  The  difficulty  is  to  select  from  the  vast  num- 
ber willing  to  give  instruction  in  institutes  those  who  are  qualified  to 
do  so.  If  the  institute  is  to  serve  the  purpose  for  w^hich  it  is  intended, 
if  it  is  to  promote  the  scientific  and  professional  spirit  of  teachers  and 
arouse  a  2)ermauent  interest  in  the  philosoph}'  of  education  and  its 
practical  application  in  the  school  room,  if  it  is  to  stimulate  the  earnest 
thought  of  the  teachers  and  the  2:)ublic  on  educational  questions  and 
evoke  sincere  devotion  to  educational  ends,  the  competence  of  instruc- 
tors must  be  unquestionable.  They  must  be  able  and  disposed  to  present 
sane  views  and  solid  matter.  Without  decrying  the  introduction  in  the 
institute  of  new  theories  and  methods,  and  without  disparaging  the 
employment  of  that  amount  of  humor  necessary  to  awaken  the  fagging 
attention  of  teachers,  it  may  be  said  emphatically  that  the  institute  is 
no  place  for  visionaries  and  fun  makers.  Professional  entertainers  have 
their  place  and  function  and  contribute  a  necessary  social  service,  but 
their  place  is  not  in  the  institute.  If  entertainment  is  made  the  end 
of  institute  instruction  the  main  purpose  of  the  institute  is  defeated. 
The  only  instruction  that  is  likely  to  be  of  permanent  value  is  that 
which  is  instructive  in  character  and  serious  in  purpose.  The  purpose 
need  not  always  be  strictly  pedagogical.  The  instruction  which  enlarges 
life's  ideals  and  purposes  may  be  no  less  valuable  to  the  teacher  than 
that  which  enlarges  professional  knowdedge.  In  general,  however,  it 
may  be  said  that  an  institute  instructor  should  be  acquainted  with  the 
principles  and  methods  of  teaching  and  observe  them  in  the  presentation 
of  his  own  instruction;  that  he  should  possess  a  knowledge  of  the  prob- 
lems, the  difficulties,  the  defects,  the  achievements  and  the  ideals  of  our 
common  schools;  that  he  should  have  enthusiasm  and  the  ability  to 
present  the  material  of  his  instruction  in  clear  and  forceful  English, 
and  that  he  be  successful  in  securing  the  response  of  teachers  to  the 
presentation  of  his  subject  matter. 

A  mistake  that  is  often  made  is  to  load  down  the  program  of  tlie 
institute  with  too  much  instruction.  If  the  sessions  are  general  and 
the  lecture  method  is  employed,  as  is  usually  the  case  in  Indiana  and 
Pennsylvania,  two  strong  lecturers  are  sufficient.  These  should  each 
deliver  two  lectures  a  day  and  each  should  have  the  opportunity  to 
question  the  teachers  on  tlie  subjects  which  he  has  discussed.  The 
lectures  of  each  of  these  instructors  should  be  on  one  general  subject, 
that  is,  the  discussion  should  be  continuous  and  thus  designed  to  pro- 
duce a  cumulative  effect  on  the  teachers.  The  superintendent  and  his 
instructors  should  agree  beforehand  on  the  lines  of  work  to  be  pursued 
and  deviations  from  tliat  line  should  not  be  made  except  for  sufficient 
cai;se.     If  these  instructors  are  capable  they  will  present  all  the  instruc- 


239 

tion  the  teachers  can  assimihite.  Anv  time  that  remains,  is  needed,  and 
should  be  taken  by  tiie  county  superintendent,  himself,  who  should 
always  be  active  in  an  institute  in  the  discussion  of  educational  ques- 
tions and  in  presenting  to  his  teachers  and  calling  forth  from  them 
plans  for  improving  the  schools  of  the  coimty. 

The  Attexdaxce  of  Teachers. 

During  the  time  the  county  institute  is  in  session  the  schools  of  the 
county  should  be  closed  and  all  teachers  should  be  in  attendance.  For 
the  week  of  the  institute  the  wages  of  teachers  should  be  allowed  just 
the  same  as  if  they  were  engaged  in  teaching.  This  would  involve  some- 
times only  a  slight  statutory  change  in  the  school  law,  as  for  instance  in 
Illinois  where  the  law  now  provides  that  "the  time  not  exceeding  three 
days  in  any  one  term,  or  five  days  in  any  one  school  3^ear,  during  term 
time,  actually  spent  by  a  teacher  of  any  public  school  in  this  State 
in  attendance  upon  a  teachers'  institute,  held  under  the  direction  of 
the  county  superintendent  of  schools,  shall  be  considered  time  lawfully 
expended  by  such  teacher  in  the  service  of  the  district  where  such 
teacher  is  employed,  and  no  deduction  of  wages  shall  be  made  for  such 
absences."* 

1  Jiis  provision  of  the  law  implies  that  in  attending  the  institute  the 
teacher  is  serving  the  district,  and  this  is  true.  The  institute  is  estab- 
lished not  primarily  for  the  teachers  but  primarily  for  the  schools.  With- 
out the  institute  there  can  not  be  the  most  efficient  school  supervision  or 
the  most  effective  school  work.  The  benefits  of  the  institute,  therefore 
accrue  chiefly  to  the  community.  They  result  in  better  supervision, 
better  teaching,  and  consequently  better  schools.  The  payment  of  wages 
to  teachers  for  attendance  at  the  institute  is  not,  then,  in  the  nature  of 
a  gratuity.  It  is,  in  part  at  least,  payment  rendered  for  sen-ice  per- 
formed, and  the  payment  should  be  cheerfully  made  because  of  the  re- 
turns derived  from  it.  It  is  unjust  to  the  teachers  to  require  them  to 
sustain  the  loss  of  a  week's  wages  while  attending  an  institute  established 
as  a  means  of  promoting  the  welfare  of  the  conniiunity  through  the  im- 
provement of  the  schools. 

Again,  it  is  desirable,  even  essential,  that  all  the  teachers  of  the 
county  should  be  present  at  the  institute.  The  absence  of  a  single 
teacher  defeats  to  some  extent  the-  purpose  for  which  it  exists.  By 
tiie  payment  of  wages  for  the  time  spent  in  attending  the  institute  the 
attendance  of  teachers  may  with  justice  be  required.  If  institutes 
are  held  at  the  time  suggested  and  the  teachers  are  paid  for  attendance, 
the  percentage  of  the  number  of  teachers  who  attend  will  approxi- 
mate one  hundred  per  cent  instead  of  sixty-five  per  cent,  which  is  about 
the  present  percentage  of  attendance.  In  ease  a  teacher  should  not 
attend  the  institute,  his  wages  should  not  be  allowed. 


*  School  Law  of  lUlnois,   Article  VII,   section   11. 


230 

FlXA^•cl.vL  SurroHT. 

At  present  count}'  institutes  are  supported  in  many  of  the  states  al- 
most entirely  b}'  examination  fees.  In  Illinois,  for  instance,  the  total 
amount  derived  from  all  sources  during  the  year  19UG-(J?  for  the  sup- 
port of  institutes  was  $52,665.9(3.  Of  this  amount  $23,984.94  was  tne 
balance  of  the  institute  fund  proj)er  on  hand  July  1,  1906.  The  differ- 
ence between  the  amount  collected  and  the  balance  is  $28,681.02,- which 
represents  the  actual  cost  of  the  institutes  of  the  State.  Of  this  amount 
only  $993  was  derived  from  registration  fees  and  $360.18  from  inci- 
dental sources.  The  county  boards  of  the  State  contributed  $236.15. 
The  burden  of  the  expense  of  the  institutes  of  the  State  falls  at  present, 
therefore,  almost  wholly  upon  the  teachers.  This  is  essentially  unjust. 
A  policy  which  imposes  upon  tlie  teachers  of  the  State  whose  wages  are 
comparatively  low  the  entire  burden  of  an  institution  from  which  the 
pupils  of  the  schools,  their  parents,  and  the  community  receive  the 
chief  benefits  is  indefensible  on  any  grounds.  As  said  before,  the  insti- 
tute is  a  part  of  the  free  school  system  itself  and  should  therefore  be  as 
accessible  to  the  teachers  as  the  school  is  to  the  child.  "If  common 
schools  are  a  great  public  blessing,^'  said  Bateman,  "and  if  institutes  are 
essential  to  their  growth  and  improvement,  then  it  would  seem  clear 
that  the  same  fostering  care  which  provides  for  the  one,  should  be  mind- 
ful of  the  other.''* 

In  addition  to  the  injustice  of  the  present  plan  of  supporting  county 
institutes  it  is  fatally  defective  in  that  it  does  not  provide  for  the  smaller 
counties  an  amount  sufficient  to  support  a  good  institute.  For  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1907,  for  instance,  the  institute  fund  in  Illinois  de- 
rived from  certification  fees  was  in  seven  counties  less  than  one  hundred 
dollars,  in  twenty-two  counties  less  than  two  hundred  dollars  and  in 
forty  counties  less  than  three  hundred  dollars.  The  average  cost  of 
the  institutes  of  the  State  is  about  $275.  The  average  cost  of  the  in- 
stitutes of  Indiana  last  year  was  $271.74.  New  York  appropriates  for 
the  support  of  county  institutes  an  amount  which  gave  to  each  institute 
in  the  State  in  1907  on  the  average,  $414.06.  It  is  clear  then  that  in 
more  than  one-third  of  the  counties  of  the  State  the  fees  for  certifica- 
tion, which  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  institute  fund,  do  not  provide  a 
sufficient  amount  to  support  the  kind  of  institute  demanded  by  the 
educational  interests  of  the  State.  On  the  other  hand  the  larger  coun- 
ties are  provided  with  a  surplus  of  funds — some  with  more  than  one 
thousand  dollars,  and  two  counties  with  $3,366.02  and  $3,626.20  respec- 
tively. Hence  there  is  in  many  counties  a  large  balance  of  unused  in- 
stitute funds.  The  total  balance  of  the  institute  funds  of  the  various 
counties  on  hand  July  1,  1906  was  $23,984.94.  Thus  we  see  that  some 
counties  of  the  State  have  large  institute  funds,  more  than  they  need, 
while  some,  on  account  of  the  small  number  of  teachers  required  and 
consequently  the  small  amount  derived  from  examination  fees,  have 
less  than  is  necessary  to  provide  good  institute  instruction.  The  prob- 
lem is  to  equalize  the  institute  privileges  of  the  various  teachers   of 

•   Third   Biennial   Report,    Superintendent    of   Public   Instruction,    Illinois,    1859- 
60,   page   50.  .  j  . 


2S1 

the  State  and  consequently  to  promote  the  efficiency  of  the  schools  in 
those  counties  in  which  high  standards  of  institute  work  mean  ex- 
cessive or  impossible  financial  burdens. 

The  method  of  solving  this  problem  should  be  in  the  nature  of  an 
attempt  to  level  up  the  character  of  all  the  institutes  to  a  minimum 
degree  of  efficiency,  while  at  the  same  time  allowing  to  any  county 
the  privilege  of  surpassing  the  minimum  to  any  extent  desired.  This 
means  the  provision  of  a  minimum  amount  of  money  for  each  institute 
of  the  State,  so  that  every  county  may  be  assured  of  a  good  institute, 
and  the  freedom  of  every  county  to  appropriate  from  the  county  treas- 
ury or  to  raise  from  the  teachers  themselves  an  additional  sum  to  sup- 
plement the  minimum  appropriation  in  case  a  larger  expense  is  in- 
curred.    ^Yhence  should  come  this  minimum  appropriation? 

As  has  already  been  shown,  the  teachers  of  Illinois  have  borne  almost 
the  entire  burden  of  the  expense  of  institutes  since  they  were  inaugurated 
more  than  sixty  years  ago.  Prior  to  1883,  since  which  time  institutes 
have  been  mainly  supported  by  the  examination  and  registration  fees 
required  of  teachers,  the  institutes  of  the  State  were  supported  mainly 
by  voluntary  contributions  made  by  the  teachers.  It  is  time  to  lift  the 
burden  of  the  institute  from  the  shoulders  of  the  teachers.  If  they 
are  relieved  of  the  payment  of  fees  to  provide  for  an  institute  fund,  they 
will  still  bear  in  connection  with  the  institute  no  inconsiderable  burden 
on  account  of  the  additional  personal  expense  made  necessary  in  attend- 
ing the  institute.  They  must  pay  their  traveling  expenses  to  and  from 
the  place  in  which  the  institute  is  held,  and  make  an  extra  outlay  for 
room  and  board.  They  are  sometimes  required  in  the  institute,  and  al- 
ways urged,  to  spend  more  money  for  books  and  journals.  The  only  re- 
quest that  can  be  rightfully  made  of  the  teachers,  then,  is  that  they 
voluntarily  assess  themselves  for  the  support  of  an  institute  which  is 
better  than  the  established  minimum.  They  should  be  asked  to  con- 
tribute no  more.     What,  then,  of  the  county? 

Under  the  proposed  plan  of  conducting  institutes  the  coimty  will 
provide  for  the  incidental  expenses  of  the  institute  and  will  support 
a  large  part  of  the  financial  burden  occasioned  by  the  payment  of 
wages  to  teachers  during  the  session  of  the  institute.  If.  in  addition, 
the  county  were  required  to  appropriate  a  sum  sufficient  to  insure  a 
good  institute,  we  should  have  the  same  difficulty  as  at  present,  namely, 
the  unequal  distribution  of  the  burden  of  institutes.  It  would  be  unfair 
to  the  smaller  counties.  Sometimes  the  law  contains  the  specific  pro- 
vision that  "county  boards  are  aiithorized  to  make  appropriations  for 
the  holding  of  county  teachers'  institutes."  Countv  boards,  as  a  rule, 
do  not  exercise  this  power  with  the  liberality  which  might  be  expected. 
Still,  the  power  should  remain  with  these  boards  to  contribute,  so 
that  in  counties  which  are  able  to  supplement  the  fund  provided,  and  in 
which  the  educational  sentiment  demands  an  institute  which  is  not  only 
good  but  excellent,  the  institute  fund  provided  from  other  sources  may 
be  supplemented  by  the  county  board.  The  county  should  not  be  re- 
quired, however,  to  assume  more  of  the  financial  burden  of  institutes 
than  will  fall  upon  it  naturally  by  the  proposed  plan.  The  fixed  ap- 
propriation should  not  come  from  the  county. 


232 

There  remains  only  the  State.  The  State  receives  a  large  part  of  tiie 
beuelits  of  institutes  just  as  it  receives  a  large  part  of  the  benefits  of  the 
common  school  system.  The  State  in  most  cases  is  committed  to  the 
policy  of  providing  free  schools  for  the  children  of  the  State  and  of 
providing  practically  free  training  for  the  teachers  of  the  State  through 
the  establishment  of  normal  schools.  By  the  same  reasoning  by  which 
a  State  appropriation  for  the  maintenance  of  normal  schools  is  justi- 
fied, the  partial  support  of  institutes  by  the  State  may  also  be  justi- 
fied. Some  states  have  come  to  recognize  the  true  relation  between 
the  institutes  of  the  state  and  the  schools,  and  make  liberal  support 
to  sustain  the  institute.  As  has  already  been  pointed  out,  New  York 
appropriates  about  $50,000.00  annually  for  the  support  of  institutes. 
^Yisconsin  also  assumes  the  entire  burden  of  institutes  and  appropriates 
$23,000.00.  West  Virginia  is  another  state  which  assumes  a  large 
share  of  the  expense  of  its  institutes. 

Taking  into  consideration,  then,  the  fact  that  under  the  proposed 
plan  of  organizing  and  conducting  institutes  the  teachers  bear  a  part 
of  tlie  financial  burden  by  the  payment  of  the  additional  personal  ex- 
pense made  necessary  in  attending  them*,  and  the  further  fact  that  the 
county  will  bear  a  fair  share  of  the  burden  by  the  payment  of  teachers' 
wages  during  the  week  of  the  institute  and  by  the  payment  of  the  in- 
cidental expenses  of  the  institute,  the  efficiency  of  the  institutes  of  the 
State  and  the  interests  of  the  schools  will  best  be  promoted  if  the  State 
pays  the  remainder  of  the  cost  through  a  fixed  appropriation.  The 
amount  of  this  appropriation  should  certainly  be  not  less  than  $300.00 
for  each  county. 

Institute  Plan   Proposed  by  the  Commission. 

On  the  basis  of  the  facts  set  forth  in  this  chapter  the  commission 
recommends  that  county  institutes  be  held  within  the  school  year  and 
continue  for  five  days ;  that  during  the  session  of  an  institute  all  the 
common  schools  of  the  county  or  counties  holding  such  institute  shall 
be  closed  and  that  the  teachers  who  attend  shall  suffer  no  deduction  of 
wages;  and  that  the  expenses  of  the  institutes  of  the  State  be  incurred 
by  the  State  and  not,  as  heretofore,  by  the  teachers.  The  complete  plan 
of  the  commission  is  embodied  in  the  following  hill: 

SECTioisr  1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  People  of  the  State  of  Illinois,  represented 
in  the  General  Assembly:  That  the  county  superintendent  of  each  county 
shall  hold  annually  an  Institute,  which  shall  continue  in  session  not  fewer 
than  five  days,  for  the  instruction  of  teachers  and  those  who  may  desire  to 
teach.  With  the  concurrence  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  he 
shall  employ  such  instructors  as  may  be  necessary  to  conduct  such  institute. 
The  State  Board  of  Education  may  prescribe  the  standard  of  qualifications 
to  be  required  of  such  instructors.  Two  or  more  adjoining  counties  may  hold 
an  institute  together. 

Sec.  2.  During  the  time  the  institute  is  in  session  the  common  schools 
of  the  county  or  counties  holding  the  institute  shall  be  closed,  and  the  time 
actually  spent  by  the  teachers  in  attendance  upon  the  institute  shall  be 
considered  time  lawfully  spent  in  the  service  of  the  district,  and  no  deduc- 
tion of  wages  shall  be  made  for  such  attendance. 


233 

Sec.  3.  To  defray  the  expenses  of  teachers'  institutes  there  is  hereby  ap- 
propriated out  of  any  moneys  in  the  State  Treasury  not  otherwise  set  apart 
the  sum  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  for  each  institute  held  in  each 
county,  or  not  to  exceed  four  hundred  dollars  for  each  joint  institute,  and 
fifty  cents  additional  for  each  teacher  in  actual  and  regular  attendance,  and 
regularly  employed  in  the  county  or  counties  holding  the  institute,  to  be 
paid  upon  the  warrant  of  the  Auditor  of  State,  issued  upon  an  itemized  state- 
ment of  the  expenses  incurred  in  connection  with  the  institute  verified  by 
aflidavit  by  the  superintendent  or  superintendents  holding  the  institute,  and 
approved  lay  the  State  Board  of  Education. 

Sec.  4.     All  Acts  or  parts  of  Acts  in  conflict  hei'ewith  are  hereby  repealed. 


REFERENCES. 

See  annual  reports  of  State  superintendents  for  reports  of  county  institutes  in 

the  various  states. 

Adams,  Fi-anci.s — Teachers'  institutes.  In  liis  free  scliool  systems  of  tlie  United 
States,    1875  ;    p.    187-88. 

Associated  academic  principles  of  the  State  of  New  York. — Teachers'  institutes. 
Discussion  at  annual  meeting,  December,  1889.  In  the  Academy;  5:44-47. 
(February,1890.) 

Barnard,  Henry — Teachers'  institutes  in  Wisconsin.  American  Journal  of  Edu- 
cation,   8  :673-78. 

Extract  from  his  report  as  agent  of  tlie  board  of  normal  regents  in  Wis- 
consin,   1859. 

Bates,  Samuel  P. — ^Methods  of  teachers'  institutes  and  the  theory  of  education. 
75    p.    D.      New    York,    1862. 

Sketches   the   object  of  a  teachers'   institute,   method  of   conducting  it  and 
plan  of  instruction. 

Boone,  R.  G. — Teachers'  Institutes.  In  his  Education  in  the  United  States,  18^7  ;  p. 
123-25. 

Changes  proposed  in  the  manner  of  conducting  institutes.  Wisconsin  Journal  of 
Education,    39:87-88,   March,    1907. 

Cotton,  Fasset  A.,  and  others. — The  county  institute.  Educator-Journal,  8:133-42; 
November,  1907. 

Dexter,  E.  G. — Teachers'  institutes.  In  his  Historv  of  Education  in  the  United 
States,    1904;    p.    392-95. 

Particulars   regarding  present  organization  and  support  appear   in   an  ap- 
pendix ;   p.    620-22,   in  tabular  form. 

Dickinson,  J.  W. — State  teachers'  institutes.  In  United  States  bureau  of  educa- 
tion.    Circular  of  information,   1889  ;  No.  2;  p.   84-90. 

Address  at  N.  E.  A.  Department  of  superintendence  ;   March,   1889. 

Gunther,  F.  P.— The  county  institute.  Texas  scliool  magazine,  11:5-7;  Septem- 
ber,  1908. 

Hewitt,  E.  C. — Teachers'  institutes.  National  Educational  Association.  Proceed- 
ings,   1887  ;   p.   292-98.      In   report  of  committee  on  normal   schools. 

Outlines  the   purposes,   methods   of  institutes  and  their   relation   to   normal 
schools.     Discussion;   p.   297-98. 

Hinsdale,  Burke  Aaron. — Institute  systems,  Journal  of  education  ;  46  :259-60  ;  Nov. 
4,    1897. 

Hinsdale,    B.   A. — Teachers'    institutes.   In   Monographs   on   education   in   the   United 
States,   1900  ;  No.  8,   p.   24-28. 

Teachers'   institutes.     In  his  Horace  Mann  and  the  common  school  revival 

in  the   United   States,    1898  ;   p.    13G-38. 

Hyatt,  Edward. — How  can  we  improve  the  teachers'  institute?  Western  Journal 
of  education;    13:398-400;   July,   1908. 

Kansas  normal  institutes,   1907.     Western  school  journal;   23:156-59;  June,   1907. 

Kansas. — State  board  of  education.  Course  of  study  for  normal  Institutes,  1908  ; 
254    p.    12°. 

Lane.  Albert  G.  and  others. — County  institutes.  In  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education. 
Circular   of   information,    1889  ;    No.    2,    p.    69-84. 

Discussion   at   N.   E.    A.    Dep't   of   Superintendenc,    March,    1889. 

Louisiana. — Department  of  education.  State  teachers'  one-week  institutes.  Pro- 
grams of  work,  also  suggestions  and  outlines.  Series  of  1906-1907.  Baton 
Rouge,    1906.      54   p.    S. 

Miller,  Thomas  C. — West  Virginia  institute  annual  containing  program  for  the 
teachers'  institutes  and  the  reading  circle  course,  1906.  Charleston,  1906. 
199    p.    8°. 

Milne,  James  M. — Teachers'  institutes,  their  past  and  present.  22p.  O.  Syracuse, 
1894. 

Maine. — Educational  department.  Manual  for  the  use  of  officers  and  members  of 
county  teachers'   institutes.     45  p.  8°. 


234 

Marjiand. — Department  of  public   education.      Institute   manual,    1903-04 — 1906-07. 

Denton.  Md.,  etc.,   1903-1906,   4  v.   8°. 
Michigan. — Department    of   public   instruction.      County   normal   training   classes   in 
Michigan.      15   p.   8°    (County  normal   bulletin  No.   1,   of   1906). 

State  teachers'   institutes,  series  of  1904.     Revised  edition,  Lansing,   1904. 
85    p.    8°. 
Missouri. — State   board  of  education.   Official  course   study  for  teachers'   institutes. 

February,   1902.   48  p.   8°. 
New    York    State    Education    Department. — Professional    education    in    the    United 
States.     Teaching.     Higher  education  bulletin,  No.   24,   1905. 

This    publication    shows    the    facilities    made    by    each    state    for    training 

teachers  including  the  provisions  and  requirements  of  county  institutes. 

New  Mexico. — Territorial  Board  of  Education.     Manual  for  county,  institutes,   1908. 

192   p.    8°. 
North  Carolina. — State  superintendent  of  public  instruction.     Manual  for  teachers' 

institutes,   North  Carolina.     Raleigh,   1905.      26   p.   8°. 
Olin,    A.    S. — The    instruction    and    improvement    of    teachers    now    at    work    in    the 
schools  by  teachers'  institutes.     National  Educational  Association  Proceedings, 
1895;   p.   165-73. 
Patterson.  J.  H. — District  institute  programs.     West  Virginia  school  journal,  35  :1S, 

November,    1906. 
Peabody  education  fund. — Proceedings  of  trustees.     Annual  report  of  general  agent. 
This   contains  reports   of   counts*   institutes   in   the   southern   states   which 
receive  assistance  from  the  Peabody  fund. 
Professional  reading  for  teachers'  institutes. — Western  journal  of  education,  12  :222, 

April,    1907. 
Randall,  S.  S. — Teachers'  institutes.     In  his  History  of  the  common  school  system 
of  the   State  of  New  York,    1871  ;   p.   59-61,   66,    71,   372. 

Includes   the   act   of   establishemnt   and   history   of   their   organization    and 
establisliment  in  New  York  State. 
Seerley,  Homer  H. — Practical  value  of  the  institute  system.     Educational  Review, 

November,  1908  ;  p.  356-363. 
Smart,   James  H. — Teachers'   institutes.      206  p.     U.   S.   Bureau  of  Education.      Cir- 
cular  of   information,    1885  ;    No.    2. 
Stone.  Kathryn  E. — What  should  constitute  a  course  of  music  for  county  institutes. 

National  education  association.  Journal  of  proceedings,  1899  ;  p.   994-97. 
Sweet,   Samuel  N. — Teachers'   institutes,  or  temporary  normal  schools ;   their  origin 

and  progress.   139   p.    8°,   1848. 
Teachers'   institutes. — Historical  development  in  the   different  states  compiled  from 
official  documents.     American  Journal  of  Education,  v.  15  :387-414. 

Includes  Connecticut,  New  York,  Ohio,  Rhode  Island  and  Massachusetts. 
Teachers'  institutes  in  New  York  State. — In  New  York  State  Department  of  Public 
Instruction.     Report   of   Sup't.,    1900  ;   p.   35-39. 
Contains  historical  outline. 
Teachers'    institutes   in   Wisconsin.      In   United   States   Commissioner   of  Education 
Report,   1867-68  ;   p.   755-56. 

Historical    account    of   the   system    of   teachers'    institutes    inaugurated    in 
Wisconsin  by  Henry  Barnard  in   1858. 
Thayer,  J.  B.,  and  others. — What  is  the  purpose  of  county  institutes  and  how  is  it 
"best  secured?     In  United  States  Bureau  of  Education.     Curcular  of  information, 
1888,   No.   6  ;   p.   44-48. 

Discussion  at  N.  E.  A.   department  of  superintendence  ;   February,    1888. 
The  county  institute.  West  Virginia  school  journal;   37:16-17;   August,    1908. 

Reprinted  from  number  for  July,   1906. 
The  teachers'  institute.     Atlantic  educational  journal;   3:20;   June,   1908. 
Tillotson,    D.    C. — Teachers'    institutes.      National    Education   Association.      Proceed- 
ings,  1886  ;   p.   346-49. 
Town.     Salem. — County    teachers'    institutes.       American    Institute    of    Instruction, 

1845  ;   p.   199-217. 
West    Virginia. — State    superintendent    of    schools.      Schedule    of    county    institutes, 

1907.     West  Virginia  school  journal;    36:9;   August,   1907. 
West  Virginia. — Department  of  free  schools.     Institute  annual  containing  program 
for   the   teachers'    institutes   and  the   Reading  circle   course,    1908.      Charleston, 
120  p.   8°. 
Wichersham,   J.   P. — Teachers'   institute  in  Pennsylvania.  In  his  History  of  Educa- 
tion in  Pennsylvania,   1886;   p.   650-52. 
Winship,   A.  E. — Institutes  in  Ohio.     Journal  of  education,    48:161;   Sept.   8,    1890. 


235 


SALARIES  OF  TEACHERS. 


In  the  declaration  of  principles  adopted  by  the  National  Educational 
Association  of  1903  it  was  asserted  that  "teaching  in  the  public  schools 
will  not  be  a  suitably  attractive  and  permanent  career,  nor  will  it  com- 
mand as  much  of  the  ability  of  the  country  as  it  should,  until  the  teachers 
are  properly  compensated  and  are  assured  of  an  undisturbed  tenure  dur- 
ing efficiency  and  good  behavior.  A  large  part  of  the  teacher's  reward, 
must  always  be  the  pleasure  in  the  character  and  quality  of  the  work 
done;  but  the  money  compensation  of  the  teacher  should  l3e  sufficient  to 
maintain  an  appropriate  standard  of  living.  Legislative  measures  to 
give  support  to  these  principles  deserve  the  approval  of  the  press  and 
the  people."* 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  assertion  involved  in  this  declaration  is 
not  merely  that  the  compensation  of  teachers  generally  is  not  in  propor- 
tion to  the  services  they  render,  which  is  an  idea  often  advanced  in  educa- 
tional discussions  which  arrive  at  no  practical  end,  but  what  is  more  to 
the  purpose,  that  the  salaries  teachers  receive  are  frequently  insufficient 
to  maintain  an  appropriate  standard  of  living. 

Now,  the  inability  of  a  teacher  to  maintain  an  appropriate  standard 
of  living,  with  aU  that  it  implies  with  respect  not  merely  to  food,  clothing 
and  shelter,  but  also  with  respect  to  the  means  of  culture  and  recreation, 
prevents  him  from  rendering  the  degree  of  service  of  which  he  is  capable. 
The  fact,  therefore,  if  it  is  a  fact,  that  teachers  are  underpaid  is  not 
merely  proof  of  injustice  to  the  teachers,  but  also  an  indication  that  in 
the  employment  of  teachers  at  present  salaries  society  is  practicing  a 
false  economy.  It  is  evident  that  we  are  violating  not  only  the  interests 
of  teachers  but  also  those  of  the  children  as  well.  In  economics  it  is  a 
generally  accepted  principle  that  low  wages  do  not  necessarily  mean  a 
low  cost  of  production.  High  wages  may,  and  often  do,  lower  the  cost 
of  production  by  increasing  the  efficiency  of  labor.  In  the  field  of 
education  the  same  principle  is  involved.  We  sometimes  hear  it  ex- 
pressed in  the  proposition  that  "the  best  teachers  are  the  cheapest." 
This  means,  of  course,  that  it  is  economy  to  hire  a  good  teacher  even  if 
the  salary  is  high.  The  fundamental  questions,  then,  with  respect  to 
teachers  salaries  are :  Do  the  services  rendered  by  teachers  bear  any 
relation  to  the  compensation  they  receive?  Are  the  wages  now  paid  to 
teachers  too  low  ?  If  so.  would  an  increase  in  wages  bring  benefits  propor- 
tionally greater  than  the  amount  of  increase  ?  To  all  of  these  question' 
the  answer  must  be  an  affirmative.  The  second  question,  however,  is 
the  one  to  which  attention  will  now  be  directed. 


♦Quoted  by  Charles  H.  Verrill  in  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Salaries,  Tenure 
and  Pensions  of  Public  School  Teachers  in  the  United  States,  Report  N.  E.  A., 
July,  1905,  page  459. 


236 

Salaries  in  General. 

What  are  the  facts  in  regard  to  the  wages  of  teachers  ?  The  most  ex- 
haustive study  of  the  question  that  has  been  recently  made  is  that  of 
the  committee  on  salaries,  tenure  and  pensions  of  public  school  teachers 
in  the  United  States,  appointed  by  the  Xational  Educational  Association 
in  1903,  and  which  embodied  the  results  of  its  investigation  in  a 
voluminous  report  published  in  1905.  In  this  report  the  committee 
shows  that  in  nearly  every  city  in  the  country  the  earnings  of  un- 
skilled laborers  exceed  those  of  the  lowest  paid  elementary  teachers. 
Again,  the  Mosely  commission  consisting  of  twenty  old  British  educa- 
tional experts,  apointed  in  1903  to  make  an  investigation  of  the  schools 
and  school  systems  of  the  United  States,  unanimously  concluded  that 
'"the  remuneration  of  teachers  is  by  no  means  always  placed  on  a  satis- 
factory basis."  This  conclusion  is  the  more  significant  because  of  the 
fact  that  the  commission  confined  its  investigation  chiefly  to  the  schools 
of  the  larger  cities,  while  it  is  in  the  rural  schools  of  the  country  that  the 
teachers  as  a  whole  are  most  inadequately  paid. 

The  conditions  Avith  respect  to  the  compensation  of  teachers  have  led 
some  of  the  states,  as,  for  instance,  Indiana,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota, 
to  appoint  commissions  to  investigate  the  question  of  teachers'  salaries. 
The  conclusion  arrived  at  in  each  case  has  been  similar  to  that  of  the 
committee  appointed  by  the  National  Educational  Association.  Con- 
cerning the  conditions  in  Minnesota,  for  instance,  a  committee  appointed 
by  the  State  Teachers'  Association  reported  that  while  conditions  were 
somewhat  better  in  that  state  than  for  the  whole  country  that  even  here 
the  wages  of  the  unskilled  laborer  are  better  than  those  of  teachers  in  all 
classes.  "The  nearest  computation  possible  for  Minnesota,''  says  the  re- 
port of  this  committee,  "makes  the  average  annual  salary  for  all  teachei's 
$411.00,  which  is  $50.00  less  than  the  annual  income  of  section  men  on 
railroads,  who  receive  from  $1.25  to  $1.75  per  day,  but  is  $50.00  more 
than  the  income  of  domestic  servants  who  average  $4.00  per  week,  in 
addition  to  board  and  home  comforts.  However,  if  we  think  only  of  the 
11,908  women  who  taught  in  Minnesota  last  year,  whose  average  annual 
salary  was  $336.00,  we  say  that  even  the  average  domestic  servant  earning 
$364.00  was  better  paid  than  the  average  female  teacher."* 

A  writer  in  the  Educational  Eeview  for  January,  1907,  says:  "The 
average  monthly  pay  of  women  teachers  in  the  United  States  is  $39.77."  f 
This  is  perhaps  slightly  below  the  mark.  But  if  the  average  wages  of  ail 
women  teachers  are  near  forty  dollars  a  month  it  is  obvious  that  women 
teaching  in  rural  schools,  in  which  wages  are  lowest  and  terms  are 
shortest,  receive  a  miserably  small  compensation  for  their  services.  Just 
what  this  compensation  is  can  not  be  ascertained,  since  the  educational 
reports  of  the  various  states,  as  a  rule,  make  no  distinction  between  the 
salary  statistics  of  rural  schools  and  those  of  city  schools.  It  may  be 
inferred,  however,  in  the  manner  just  suggested  or  from  the  facts  so  far 
as  they  are  made  known.  In  189'<  the  Committee  on  Eural  Schools,  ap- 
pointed by  the  Xational  Educational  Association,  presented  a  table  based 

♦Fourteenth   Biennial   Report,   Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,   Minnesota, 
1905.   pages  r.SO-oSl. 

tV\'^here  Education  Breaks  Down,   by.WilUani   McAndrew. 


237 

upon  rejDorts  of  state  superinteiidents  showing  that  in  thirty-four  states 
the  average  wages  paid  to  men  in  rural  schools  was  $39.50  and  the  aver- 
age wages  of  women  in  rural  schools  was  $33.00.  Inasmuch  as  the  aver- 
ago  length  of  term  of  these  rural  schools  is  perhaps  not  more  than  six 
months,  it  follows  that  in  1897  the  men  teaching  in  the  rural  schools  )i 
the  country  received  $237.00  a  year,  tlie  w^omen  about  $200.00  a  year. 
Wages  of  teachers  have  advanced  since  that  time,  but  taking  into  con- 
sideration the  increased  cost  of  living  they  are  proportionately  as  low 
now,  if  not  lower,  than  they  were  then.  It  is  curious  that  the  situation 
thus  indicated  does  not  destroy  the  complacency  of  the  American  public 
in  regard  to  its  investment  in  public  schools.  The  fact  is  we  do  not  ex- 
pend half  as  much  as  would  be  necessary  to  place  the  schools  of  the 
country,  especially  the  rural  schools,  abreast  of  the  times. 

The  following  table  will  show  the  number  of  days  taught  in  the  years 
indicated,  and  the  wages  of  teachers  in  all  the  states  for  which  statistics 
are  available. 

TABLE  I. 

Showing  the  Length  of  Term  in  Days,  the  Aveiuge  Monthhj  Salaries  of 
Men  and  Women  Teachers  and  the  Average  Salaries  of  all  Teachers 
in  the   Various  States. 


State. 

Date  of 
report. 

Number 

of 

days  taught. 

Average  Monthly  Salary  of 
Teachers. 

Men. 

Women. 

All. 

Alabama 

1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1905 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1906 
1908 
1906 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1907 
1905 
1907 
1906 
1907 
1906 
1903 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1905 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 

86.9 
81 

169 
tl36.4 
189.08 

*$  47  23 
39  80 
+69  31 
t57  46 
106  63 
72  82 
*57  89 

*$37  58 
35  13 
+67  37 
i49  57 
45  78 
34  70 
*38  97 

$41  59 

Arkansas 

42  62 

Calif  orn  ia 

75  30 

Colorado 

64  84 

Connecticut 

Dele  ware 

40  22 

Florida 

110 

115 

136 

171.6 

142 

160 

130 

27  81 

Idaho 

71  00 

§47  47 

59  20 

48  62 

§48  00 

55  90 
§39  62 
53  20 
36  06 
§40  00 

60  11 

Illinois 

64  44 

Indiana .... 

55  60 

Iowa         ... 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

§41  88 
34  80 

146 

136 

185 

189 
§168 
+144 

123 
tl30 

128 

167.7 

158.7 

157.3 

188 

74  50 
38  99 

49  66 
29  92 

Maine 

30  86 

50  78 

Massachusetts 

149  02 

§67  26 

+48  83 

33  54 

+38  91 

87  30 

60  78 

112  51 

+51  07 

103  02 

57  07 

§46  17 

+38  83 

29  46 

t38  07 

56  07 

43  49 

67  96 

+35  20 

54  46 

64  90 

Minnesota .... 

45  35 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

30  84 
t38  37 

Montana    

60  16 

45  70 

Nevada 

71  93 

New  Hampshire 

N  ew  Jersey 

i35  92 
61  90 

57  00 

New  York 

188.6 

86  72 

32  68 

155.7 
1160 
100 
158.4 
163.2 

51  78 
40  00 
48  16 
60  02 

52  82 

44  70 
37  00 
42  72 
44  95 
39  47 

45  92 

Ohio 

41  79 

4121 

1906 
1907 

Pennsylvania .... 

238 

Table  i— Concluded. 


State. 

Date  of 
Report. 

Number 

of 

days  taught. 

Average  Monthly  Salary 
OF  Teachers. 

Men. 

Women. 

All. 

Rhode  Island 

1905 
1905 
1906 
1906 
1005 
1906 
1906 
1907 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 

194 

149  02 

53  70 

59  25 

South  Carolina 

30  06 

South  Dakota 

155.5 

116 

112 

63  14 
39  00 
GO  01 
86  40 
49  21 
47  78 
67  86 

43  67 
35  00 
48  01 
55  41 
33  23 
.30  28 
53  50 

45  89 

Tennessee  

36  20 

Texas 

52  71 

Utah 

Vermont 

148 
128 
167 
125 
170 
140 

36  78 

Virginia 

Washington 

56  89 

West  Virginia 

36  70 

Wisconsin  

58  87 
77  29 

38  65 
48  34 

Wyoming 

52  21 

*  Average  for  white  teachers  only. 

t  Average  paid  in  primary  schools. 

i  Average  in  rural  schools. 

§  Average  paid  teachers  in  ungraded  schools. 

II  Average  paid  all  teachers  in  townsftiip  elementary  schools. 

A  glance  at  this  table  will  show  not  only  that  the  average  monthly 
wages  of  women  teachers  in  a  score  of  the  states  is  less  than  $40.00  a 
month,  but  that  in  nine  of  the  states  the  average  monthly  wages  of  all 
teachers  is  less  than  that  sum. 

The  true  basis  of  computing  a  teacher's  salary,  however,  is  not  the 
month,  but  the  year.  High  monthly  wages  may  be  altogether  inadequate 
if  the  term  is  short.  The  question  of  the  length  of  the  school  term 
is  therefore  directly  connected  with  that  of  the  teacher's  salary. 

The  following  table  will  show  the  length  of  the  minimum  school 
term  or  year  required,  the  length  of  the  school  month  and  the  practice 
with  regard  to  the  allowance  to  teachers  of  holidays  in  all  the  states 
from  which  data  have  been  secured. 

TABLE. 

SJioicing  the  Length  of  the  Minimum  School  Term  or  Year  Required, 
the  Length  of  the  School  Month,  and  the  Practice  with  Regard  to  the 
Alloivance  to  Teachers  of  Holidays. 


state. 

Term. 

Month. 

Holidays. 

Alabama 

None 

"0  days 

::o  davs 

Not  allowed 

None  .                        

Allowed 

No  law— 3  months  expected. .. 

20  days 

Not  allowed 

'0  davs 

Allowed 

4  weekF 

Allowed 

36  weeks     

20  days 

* 

140  days     

"0  days 

* 

4  months 

"20  days 

Allowed 

■!0  days 

Not  allowed 

Idaho 

9  months           

-0  days 

Allowed 

Calendar  month 

".'0  days 

Allowed 

Indiana 

6  months        

Not  allowed 

120  days 

'JO  davs 

Not  allowed 

Not  allowed 

Kentucky 

6  months 

20  days 

Not  allowed 

♦  The  matter  of  allowipg  holidays  is  left  with  the  local  boards. 


239 
Table — Concluded. 


State. 


Term. 


Month. 


Holidays. 


Louisiana None 

Maine 20  weeks  .. 

Maryland 10  months . 

Massachusetts....  32  weeks... 

Michigan 5  months.. 

Minnesota Smonths.. 

Mississippi , 4  months.. 

Missouri 8  months.. 

Montana Smonths.. 

Nebraska 7  months.. 

Nevada 6  months.. 

New  Hampshire  .  20  weeks... 

New  Jersey 9  months.. 

New  Mexico None 

New  York 160  days. .. 

North  Carolina. ..  4  months.. 

North  Dakota 6  months.. 

Ohio 32  weeks  .. 

Oklahoma 3  months . . 

Oregon 4  months. . 

Pennsylvania |7  months 

Rhode  Island 6  months 


South  Carolina 
South  Dakota.. 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington  .. . 
West  Virginia. 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 


3  months. 
6  months. 

None 

6  months. 
20  weeks  . 
28  weeks  . 
5  months. 

5  months. 

6  months. 
8  months. 
3  months. 


20  days 

20  days  

Calendar  month. 

20  days 

20  days 

4  weeks 

20  days 

4  weeks 

20  days 

20  days 

20  days 

20  days 

20  days 

4  weeks 

Calendar  month. 

20  days 

20  days 

4  weeks 

20  days 

20  days 

20  days 

Calendar  month. 

20  days 

20  days 

20  days 

20  days 

20  days 

4  weeks 

4  weeks 

20  days 


20  days 

Calendar  month. 


Allowed 

Allowed 

Allowed 

Allowed 

Not  allowed. 

Allowed 

Not  allowed. 

Allowed . 

Allowed 

Not  allowed. 
Not  allowed. 
Not  allowed. 

Allowed 

Allowed 

Allowed 

Not  allowed. 

Allowed 

Allowed 

Allowed 

Allowed 

Not  allowed. 
Not  allowed. 
* 

Allowed 

Allowed 

Not  allowed. 

Allowed 

Allowed 

Allowed 

Allowed 

Allowed 

Allowed 

Allowed 


*The  matter  of  allowing  holidays  is  left  with  the  local  boards. 


The  average  length  of  the  school  term  in  the  forty-two  states  fixing 
the  minimum  term  by  law  is  5.7  months.  It  is,  then,  a  conservative 
estimate  to  place  the  salaries  of  women  employed  in  teaching  in  the 
rural  schools  of  the  country  at  $40.00  a  month,  or  about  $2.50.00  a  year. 


In  Illinois. 

The  number  of  teachers  employed  in  the  public  schools  in  Illinois 
is  28,524.  Of  this  number  5,411  are  men  and  23,113  are  women.  Dur- 
ing the  year  ending  June  30,  1908,  the  men  taught  an  aggregate  of 
40,751  months  and  received  $346,854.97,  or  an  average  monthly  salary 
of  $82.13.  The  women  taught  an  aggregate  of  195,484  months  and  re- 
ceived $11,877,793.76,  an  average  of  $60.76  a  month. 

In  ungraded  schools,  where  the  salaries  are  lowest,  there  are  11,480 
teacliers — 3,002  men  and  8,478  women.  During  the  last  year  the  men 
taught  an  aggregate  of  19,440  months  for  which  they  were  paid  $992,- 
872.57.  The  women  taught  60,574  months  and  received  $2,400,084.42. 
The  average  salary  for  men  teaching  in  the  ungraded  schools  of  the  State 
is,  therefore,  $47.47  and  the  average  salary  for  women  in  the  ungraded 
scliools  is  $39.62.  The  following  statement  will  show  the  average  sal- 
aries for  men  and  women  in  graded  and  ungraded  schools,  and  in  all 
grades  for  the  years  1906,  1907  and  1908. 


210 


1906 


1907 


1908 


Average  wages  for  men  in  graded  schools 

Average  wages  for  women  in  graded  schools... 

Average  wages  for  men  in  ungraded  schools 

Average  wages  for  women  in  ungraded  schools 

Average  monthly  wages  for  men 

Average  monthly  wages  for  women 


$107  66 

$109  89 

66  54 

67  91 

43  79 

46  &6 

37  61 

38  38 

73  00 

75  85 

57  44 

58  72 

$113  74 
70  23 
47  47 
39  62 
82  1» 
60  76 


The  most  significant  fact  shown  by  this  table  is  tliat  the  8,478  women 
employed  in  the  rural  schools  of  Illinois  receive  for  their  services,  on 
the  average,  less  than  $40.00  a  month.  Averages,  however,  are  often 
misleading.  To  illustrate,  let  us  suppose  that  A,  B,  and  C  are  employed 
at  $100.00,  $30.00,  and  $20.00  a  month,  respectively.  Tlieir  average 
monthly  salary  would  then  be  $50.00.  This  average  gives  no  indication 
of  the  actual  salary  of  any  of  them.  Or,  say  that  at  the  same  salaries  A 
is  employed  for  ten  monthse  in  the  year,  B  for  six  and  C  for  four.  The 
average  annual  salary  of  the  three  would  then  be  $420.00.  Again,  this 
average  tells  us  little  about  the  real  income  of  A,  B,  or  C.  So  the  econ- 
omic condition  of  the  teachers  of  the  State  is  not  disclosed  by  a  state- 
ment of  the  average  salaries  they  receive.  We  must  go  further  and  en- 
deavor to  ascertain  approximately  the  number  of  teachers  whose  com- 
pensation is  insufficient  to  provide  the  necessary  means  of  living  and  the 
educational  means  and  opportunities  necessary  to  professional  progress. 
In  the  determination  of  this  question  the  minimum  salaries  paid  to 
teachers  in  each  county  of  the  State  may  be  even  less  enlightening  than 
average  salaries.  Still,  it  is  worth  while  to  observe  in  passing  that  ac- 
cording to  the  reports  from  the  various  counties  for  the  last  school  year 
the  salaries  of  men  teachers  fell  as  low  or  lower  than  $25.00  a  month  in 
twenty-four  counties.  In  six  counties  it  fell  to  $20.00  a  month.  In 
seven  counties  the  average  for  men  was  either  below  $40.00  or  only 
slightly  in  excess  of  that  sum.  There  are  only  seven  counties  in  the 
State  which  do  not  employ  one  or  more  men  teachers  for  $40.00  a  mont-ti 
or  less.  The  lowest  salary  paid  to  any  man  teacher  was  $20.00  a  month. 
The  wages  of  women  teachers  fell  to  $20.00  a  month  or  less  in  twenty- 
eight  counties.  One  county  employed  at  least  one  w^omen  teacher  at 
$10.00  a  month. 

It  is  plain  then  that  in  Illinois  there  is  a  number  of  teachers  who  re- 
ceive a  mere  pittance  for  their  services.  This  fact  of  itself,  even  if  the 
number  is  small,  is  sufficient  to  create  alann  in  the  minds  of  those  whose 
interest  extends  to  all  schools  and  school  children  of  the  State.  It 
indicates  that  there  are  localities  in  whicli  there  are  imprepared  teachers, 
poorly  instructed  children,  and  a  lack  of  public  interest  in  education. 
This  is  a  condition  to  which  no  citizen  should  be  indifferent.  We  shall 
now  show  that  the  number  of  poorly  paid  teachers  in  the  State  is  not 
small. 

Five  years  ago  a  special  inquiry  developed  the  fact  that  6,243  teachers 
in  the  State  received  less  than  $40.00  a  month.  This  number  has  been 
reduced  but  is  is  still  in  the  neighborhood  of  three  thousand.  The  fol- 
lowing table  shows  the  number  of  teachers  in  ungraded  schools  and  the 


241 


number  of  such  teachers  who  receive  less  tlian  $40.00  a  montli.  The  first 
cohimu  contains  the  number  of  men  teaching  in  ungraded  schools,  the 
second  column  the  number  of  women  teaching  in  ungraded  schools,  the 
third  column  the  total  number  of  teachers  in  ungraded  schools  and  the 
f ourtli  the  number  of  teachers  who  receive  less  than  $40.00  a  month : 


Counties. 

Men. 

Women. 

TotaL 

No.  receiv- 
ing less  than 
$40  a  mo. 

Adams 

48 

7 
36 

1 
23 
24 
20 
17 
10 
36 
71 
25 
47 
25 
43 
11 
49 
44 
10 
19 
24 

4 
34 
24 
29 
68 

8 
82 
50 
32 
33 

4 
68 
78 
21 
12 

7 
21 
34 
63 
68 
12 

9 
50 

4 
15 

3 
21 

6 
15 
47 

4 
25 
24 
33 
38 
20 
39 

5 
20 
21 
33 

4 
41 
12 
13 
21 

123 
35 
38 
65 
51 

161 
1.1 
87 
50 

169 
68 
93 
43 
38 

121 

101 
62 
68 

140 
70 
56 
63 

105 
23 
53 
79 
93 
32 

147 
27 
55 
81 
16 

138 
11 
53 

177 

201 
75 
86 
75 
49 

105 
24 

107 

125 
65 

143 
82 

268 
24 

160 

233 
84 
86 

122 
89 
67 
75 
70 
22 

138 

114 

198 
41 

100 
21 

171 

42 

74 

66 

74 

185 

33 

104 

60 

205 

139 

118 

90 

63 

164 

112 

111 

112 

150 

89 

80 

67 

139 

47 

82 

147 

101 

114 

197 

59 

88 

85 

48 

216 

32 

65 

184 

224 

109 

149 

142 

61 

114 

74 

111 

140 

68 

164 

88 

283 

71 

164 

2.58 

108 

119 

160 

109 

106 

80 

90 

43 

171 

118 

239 

53 

113 

52 

Alexander 

Bond 

Boone .         

Brown 

Bureau 

Calhoun 

Carroll 

57 

Cass 

Champaign 

Christian 

Clark 

Clay 

42 

Clinton 

9n 

Coles 

Cook 

Crawford 

Cumberland 

22 

DeKalb 

37 
4 

DeVVitt 

Douglas 

DuPage 

60 

Edgar 

4 

Edwards 

19 
85 

Effingham 

Fayette 

32 

17 

Franklin 

24 

56 

Gallatin 

22 

Grundy 

42 

Hancock  

32 

15 

Henderson 

1 

134 

Iroquois 

20 

21 

Jasper 

40 

30 

Jersey 

31 

77 

Johnson 

72 

36 

Kankakee 

20 

Knox 

35 

27 

LaSalle  

88 

11 

Lee 

46 

26 

Logan 

1 

0 

48 

10 

Marion 

96 

86 

Mason ... 

5 

19 

McDonough 

35 

McLean 

95 
8 

5 

20 

4 

-16  E  C 


242 


Counties. 

Men. 

Women . 

Total. 

No.  receiv- 
ing less  than 
$40  a  mo. 

Montgomery 

46 
32 
23 
27 
19 
27 
27 
46 
26 
15 

3 
25 
38 

2 
68 
46 
25 
14 
68 
13 
64 
28 
28 
55 
50 
33 
15 
17 
83 
65 
11 

9 
55 

6 
16 

97 
62 
56 

156 

118 
53 
74 

118 
46 
21 
23 
65 
45 
79 
18 

109 
63 
24 
84 
50 
94 

115 
87 
12 

136 
12 

104 
63 
64 
40 

121 

173 
54 

104 
85 

143 
94 
79 
183 
137 
80 
101 
164 
72 
36 
26 
90 
83 
81 
86 
155 
88 
38 
152 
63 
158 
143 
115 
67 
186 
45 
119 
80 
147 
95 
132 
182 
109 
110 
101 

25 

Morgan 

2 

1 

Ogle 

69 

Peoria 

7 

Perry 

50 

Piatt 

0 

Pike 

60 

Pope 

25 

Pulaski 

23 

Putnam 

40 

Randolph 

30 

Richland 

70 

Rock  Island 

32 

Saline 

13 

Sangamon 

15 

Schuyler 

20 

Scott 

2 

Shelby  

Stark  

38 

4 

Stephenson 

60 

1  aze  well 

3 

Union 

40 

4 

Wabash 

9 

Warren 

5 

Washington 

39 

Wayne 

65 

White 

21 

Will 

117 

Williamson 

82 

Winnebago 

20 

Woodford 

6 

3,002 

8,478 

11.480 

2,893 

The  total  of  column  four  is  2,893.  Seven  counties,  however,  do  not 
report  the  number  of  teachers  receiving  less  than  $40.00.  Eeturns  from 
these  counties  would  certainly  increase  the  total  to  something  above 
three  thousand.  It  is  thus  seen  that  at  least  3,000  teachers  in  the  un- 
graded schools  of  Illinois,  which  is  26  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of 
teachers  thus  employed,  receive  less  than  $40.00  a  month.  How  much 
less  we  can  not  say,  but  as  was  shown  before  some  of  them  receive  less 
than  half  that  amount.  In  six  of  the  counties  reporting,  all  women 
teaching  in  the  ungraded  schools  apparently  receive  less  than  $40.00. 
In  two  of  the  counties  the  number  of  teachers  reported  as  receiving  less 
than  $40.00  is  greater  than  the  total  number  of  teachers  in  the  ungraded 
schools.  Consequently  it  can  not  be  said, that  wages  of  $40.00  or  less 
are  limited  to  the  ungraded  schools. 

It  is  obvious  that  in  computing  the  wages  of  a  teacher  the  yearly  basis 
should  be  taken.  Teachers  must  live  throughout  the  vacation,  and  few 
of  them  add  very  much  to  their  income  during  that  period. 

The  average  length  of  the  school  term  in  Illinois  is  7.8  months.  Ob- 
viously the  average  can  not  be  so  much  as  that  in  the  country  schools. 
Let  us  assume  that  it  is  seven  and  one-half  months.  It  is  certainly  no 
more  than  that.  At  seven  and  one-half  months  in  the  year  a  teacher 
whose  monthly  salary  is  $40.00  will  receive  $300.00  a  year.  It  is  obvious 
that  on  that  amount  alone  no  teacher  can  maintain  "an  appropriate 
standard  of  living." 


243 

The  Cost  of  Living. 

No  argument  will  be  required  to  show  that  teaching  can  never  become 
a  calling  chosen  by  persons  who  fit  themselves  to  teach  unless  the  salary 
offered  is  sufficient  to  meet  not  only  the  individual  cost  of  living  but 
also  the  expenses  of  maintaining  a  family.  Now,  while  a  salary  of 
$300.00  a  year  is  a  desirable  supplement  to  the  annual  income  of  a 
family  which  is  not  obliged  to  rely  upon  the  wages  of  a  teacher  for  its 
support,  it  is  insufficient  to  pay  the  food  bill  of  an  average  family,  to 
say  nothing  of  the  bills  for  rent,  clothing,  and  the  other  expenses  of  the 
household.  The  average  cost  of  food  per  family  in  the  tHnited  States  in 
1907  was  $374.75.  This  is  an  increase  of  4.3  per  cent  over  the  cost  in 
1906,  and  of  26.3  per  cent  over  the  cost  in  1896.  "The  increased  cost 
of  food,''  says  a  recent  bulletin  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor, 
"^^las  been  felt  b}'  everyone,  and  perhaps  more  keenly  by  employes  on 
salaries,  as  the  general  tendency  is  to  advance  employes  on  salaries  less 
rapidly  than  those  employed  by  the  day  or  week  whose  services  are  con- 
tracted for  at  frequent  inten-als.'"*  But  the  cost  of  food  is  somewhat 
less  than  one-half  the  expenditure  of  the  average  family.  A  salary  of 
$40.00  a  month  for  seven  and  one-half  months  in  the  year  is  consequem 
less  than  half  enough  to  support  a  famity.  Clearly,  then,  at  the  present 
rate  of  wages  we  must  depend  largely  upon  unmarried  women  for  our 
supply  of  teachers.  This  may  not  mean  poor  teaching,  but  it  does  mean 
that  so  long  as  this  is  the  case  teaching  can  not  become  a  profession. 

Wages  in  Other  Occupations. 

Space  need  not  be  taken  to  show  that  the  wages  of  teachers  generally 
are  less  than  those  of  unskilled  laborers.  It  has  been  shown  again  and 
again,  and  by  evidence  which  cannot  be  refuted,  that  this  is  the  case.  In 
many  of  our  cities  a  common  laborer  on  the  streets  receives  more  than 
$50.00  a  month.  Hod  carriers  in  Chicago  are  paid,  on  the  average, 
$16.44  a  week,  or  more  than  $65.00  a  month. f  It  could  easily  be  shown 
that  the  salaries  of  women  teachers  are  lower  on  the  average  than  those 
of  first  class  stenographers  and  saleswomen.  It  would  be  difficult,  in- 
deed, to  find  a  reputable  occupation  demanding  anything  above  average 
intelligence  in  which  the  wages  computed  on  an  annual  basis  are  not 
more  than  the  Avages  received  by  the  country  school  teacher.  A  woman 
who  left  the  schoolroom  to  become  a  clown  in  a  variety  show  is  quoted 
as  saying,  "It  pays  better  to  be  a  member  of  the  ballet  than  to  be  a 
school  teacher.  The  school  teacher  has  a  hard  time  to  exist  on  the  pay 
she  gets,  but  a  ballet  girl  can  make  very  good  wages,  in  fact  she  can  often 
make  twice  what  a  teacher  can  in  a  country  school."§  With  such  facts 
in  mind  does  not  the  claim  of  public  appreciation  of  the  work  of  the 
teacher  and  of  public  appreciation  of  the  significance  of  education  scmnd 
a  bit  hollow? 


♦Bulletin  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  T>,abor.  No.  77.  July.  1908,  p.  197. 
tBuUetin   of  the   United   States   Bureau   of  T^abor.   No.   77.   July.    1908,   page   137. 
§Illinoi.s   Stats   Journal,    Springfield,    111.,    Thursday,    October   22,    1908. 


244 


Causes, 


There  are  many  reasons  why  tjie  salaries  of  teachers,  especially  of 
women  teachers  are  low.  In  the  first  place  they  do  not  conform  to  the 
general  law  of  wages.  They  are  not  sustained  by  the  usual  standard  oi 
Jiving,  since  so  many  teachers  do  not  depend  upon  their  salaries  as  teach- 
ers for  their  entire  support.  Many  young  women  teach  "for  experience'^ 
or  to  earn  a  little  pin  money  in  the  period  between  school  days  and 
matrimony,  and  hence  can  afford  to  accept  any  salary  that  is  offered. 
Men  in  country  districts  sometimes  rely  chiefly  on  some  occupation  other 
than  teaching  for  their  support,  and  hence  are  able  and  willing  to  accept 
a  low  wage  for  teaching  during  the  months  when  they  could  not  other- 
wise well  be  occupied.  All  this  is  but  to  say  that  teaching  is  not  yet 
looked  upon  as  a  calling  upon  the  same  plane  as  the  other  professions, 
trades  and  occupations.  The  public  is  to  blame  for  this.  Everybody 
knows  better  than  that  anybody  can  teach  school.  Children,  like  other 
growing  things,  should  be  put  in  the  hands  of  experts.  When  the  public 
demands  expert  teaching  it  wdll  find  that  the  supply  is  small  and  will 
therefore  be  compelled  to  pay  a  living  wage.  The  first  great  demand  is 
to  raise  the  qualifications  of  teachers.  This  the  commission  has  had 
in  mind  in  proposing  its  plan  for  the  certification  of  teachers.  But  an 
increase  in  wages  will  also  tend  to  produce  that  effect. 

Effects. 

But  whatever  the  causes  may  be,  the  effects  of  the  present  low  salaries 
of  teachers  are  sufficiently  obvious.  With  salaries  at  the  present  level  it 
would  be  futile  to  expect  that  young  men  and  young  women  will  delib- 
erately choose  teaching  as  a  jDermanent  calling  and  take  the  time  and 
spend  the  money  to  make  adequate  preparation  for  a  successful  career 
in  that  line  of  work.  They  could  not  do  so,  no  matter  how  much  they 
might  be  so  inclined.  Imagine  a  brilliant  and  ambitious  young  man  re- 
flecting deliberately  on  the  choice  of  an  occupation  to  be  followed  through 
life.  How  much  thought  do  you  suppose  would  be  given  to  teaching, 
especially  to  teaching  in  the  elementary  schools?  We  smile  at  the  idea 
of  his  giving  it  serious  consideration.  And  yet  it  is  this  teaching  in  the 
elementary  schools  upon  which  the  character  of  our  future  civilization 
largely  depends.  The  friends  of  education  will  never  be  satisfied  until 
the  business  of  teaching,  even  in  the  country  schools,  is  made  so  attrac- 
tive financially  and  otherwise  that  it  will  draw  and  hold  the  brilliant 
and  ambitious.  All  that  can  be  expected  at  present  is  perhaps  an  in- 
crease in  the  public  recognition  and  compensation  of  the  teacher  so  that 
the  number  of  those  who  are  repelled  by  existing  conditions  may  be  some- 
what reduced.    But  this  much  at  least  should  be  given. 

As  might  generally  be  expected  as  an  effect  of  the  prevailing  salaries 
paid  to  teachers  the  number  of  men  engaged  in  teaching  is  not  only 
relatively  small  but  is  rapidly  decreasing.  There  are  only  about  3,000 
men  teachers  in  the  elementary  schools.  During  the  last'  thirty  years 
the  percentage  of  men  in  the  schools  has  decreased  from  approximately 
28  per  cent  to  approximately  19  per  cent.     There  are  counties  in  the 


245 

State  which  have  only  one,  two  or  three  men  in  the  ungraded  schools. 
There  are  five  counties  with  only  four  men  in  sucli  schools  and  there 
are  seventeen  counties  with  fewer  than  ten.  The  following  table  will 
show  the  decrease  in  the  number  and  percentage  of  men  in  the  schools 
of  the  State  and  the  corresponding  increase  in  the  number  of  women 
during  the  last  ten  years. 


Year  Ending. 

Men. 

Women. 

Percent- 
age 
of  men. 

June  30,  1898 

7,  .324 
7.309 
7.273 
7.164 
6,800 
6,505 
6.248 
6,137 
5,935 
5,571 
5,411 

18,911 

19,  .312 
19,715 
20.117 

20,  .386 
29,595 
21,223 
21,723 
25, 193 
22.512 
23,113 

27.92 

1899 

27.46 

1900 

27  69 

1901  

26.26 

1902 

25,02 

1903 

24  00 

1904 

22  74 

1905 

1906 

22.03 
21.00 

1907. 

19  83 

1908 

18.97 

Now  the  fact  that  teaching  is,  and  is  becoming  more  and  more,  tha 
work  of  women  is  not  altogether  to  be  deplored,  for  women  may  be  and 
are  often  the  best  of  teachers.  But  whatever  may  be  thought  of  the 
excellence  of  their  work  in  the  school  room,  there  are  few  well  informed 
persons  who  would  contend  that  the  number  of  men  in  the  schools 
should  not  be  relatively  greater  than  it  is  now.  At  all  events,  it  is  clear 
that  while  the  great  majority  of  teachers  are  unmarried  women  the 
teaching  force  of  the  State  must  be  a  shifting  and  impermanent  one,  so 
that  teaching  can  not  possibly  become  an  established  profession  like  law 
•or  medicine.  Higher  wages  would  increase  at  once  the  number  of  men 
teachers  and  thus  tend  to  put  the  work  of  teaching  in  the  way  of  becom- 
ing what  it  should  be,  namely,  a  calling  to  which  men  and  women  may 
de^■ote  their  lives. 

Eemedies. 

It  is  supposed  that  sufficient  evidence  has  been  presented  to  convince 
any  impartial  mind  that  teachers  are  under  paid.  Much  more  evidence 
■could  be  advanced  if  it  were  thought  necessary.  This  being  the  case, 
"we  may  now  turn  our  attention  to  the  discovery  of  the  best  method  of 
increasing  the  pay  of  teachers. 

The  first  question  which  presents  itself  in  this  consideration  is,  may 
not  the  whole  matter  be  safely  left  to  the  law  of  supply  and  demand? 
The  answer  to  this  question  is  an  unhesitating  and  a  most  emphatic, 
Xo !  Even  if  the  slow  operation  of  an  economic  law  could  be  depended 
upon  to  bring  about  in  time  a  better  condition  with  respect  to  teachers' 
wages,  we  could  not  afford  to  await  its  action.  Time  is  always  precious, 
"but  never  more  so  than  in  education.  The  education  of  the  children  of 
the  State  is  in  a  very  true  sense  a  matter  of  life  and  death.  We  want  im- 
proved conditions  and  better  teaching,  not  merely  in  future  times  but 


246 

now — for  our  own  children  as  well  as  for  our  children's  children.  But 
the  economic  law  of  supply  and  demand  can  not  be  relied  upon  in  this 
ease.  Teaching  is  expert  service.  The  employers  of  teachers  are  not  as 
a  rule  expert  judges  of  this  service.  Accordingly  a  teacher  will  not  be 
paid  in  the  direct  ratio  of  his  efficiency  and  it  is  useless  to  encourage 
him  to  think  that  this  will  be  the  case.  He  will  as  a  rule  be  paid  "what 
is  customary"  and,  in  certain  cases  at  least,  "what  is  customary"  will 
be  far  below  a  living  wage.  The  State  demands  that  every  child  within 
its  border  be  given  "a  good  common  school  education."  This  means  of 
necessity  good  teaching,  and  for  good  teaching  an  adequate  compensa- 
tion should  be  rendered.  The  time  has  come  wdien  parsimonious  direc- 
tors should  no  longer  be  permitted  to  defeat  the  ■will  of  the  State. 

The  salaries  of  teachers  are  in  a  different  class  from  the  wages  of 
ordinary  labor.  The  product  of  the  laborer  is  a  commodity  which  is 
sold,  or  to  be  sold,  at  a  profit.  If  profits  are  high  employers  are  aware 
of  it  and  strive  to  increase  the  amount  of  commodities  produced.  They 
invest  more  capital.  There  is  an  increased  demand  for  labor  and  this 
tends  to  advance  wages.  But  the  profit  derived  from  the  work  of  the 
teacher  is  not  immediately  apparent.  It  accrues  gradually  and  to  the 
children  educated  and  the  State,  not  directly  to  the  employers  of  the 
teacher.  Hence  the  teacher,  much  less  than  the  ordinary  wage  laborer, 
can  depend  upon  the  selfishness  of  those  who  employ  him  to  enter  as  an 
element  in  advancing  his  salary. 

If  the  economic  law  of  supply  and  demand  could  be  relied  upon  any- 
where to  bring  about  a  just  and  satisfactory  adjustment  of  wages  it 
seems  that  it  would  be  in  the  case  of  common  labor.  But  the  history  of 
wages 'in  the  various  productive  industries  shows  that  even  here  it  has 
not  been  depended  upon  by  the  laborers.  They  have  combined  with 
the  distinct  and  definite  purpose  of  promoting  their  compensation,  and 
in  many  cases  they  have  succeeded. 

Inasmuch  as  the  trades-union  method  of  raising  wages  has  been  effec- 
tive it  would  not  be  strange  if  teachers  should  organize  for  the  same 
purpose.  "If  the  various  trades  in  this  coimtry,  by  organization,  can  fix 
wages,  teachers  may  be  compelled  to  resort  to  heroic  measures  to  secure 
wages  which  are  commensurate  with  the  time  and  money  put  into  prep- 
aration and  in  keeping  with  the  dignity  of  the  teaching  profession."  So 
says  a  superintendent  of  one  of  our  northern  states,  but  he  correctly  de- 
clares that  the  formation  of  unions  among  teachers,  after  the  fashion  of 
labor  unions,  is  repugnant  to  the  people.  The  fact  that  the  public  gen- 
erally would  decry  an  organized  effort  on  the  part  of  teachers  them- 
selves to  raise  their  salaries  is  a  good  reason  why  the  public  should  en- 
deavor through  legislation  to  secure  for  the  teacher  a  living  wage. 

This  brings  us  to  a  consideration  of  a  third  method  of  increasing  the 
compensation  of  teachers,  namely,  the  establishment  by  law  of  a  min- 
imum wage  or  schedule  of  w^ages  below  which  the  amount  paid  a  teacher 
by  the  school  authorities  of  a  city,  state,  or  county,  as  the  case  may  be, 
may  not  be  reduced.  '^^I'his  principle  of  a  minimum  salary  for  teachers 
has  been  widely  applied  both  in  this  country  and  abroad.  A  brief  ac- 
count and  regime  of  the  legislation  in  which  it  has  found  expression 
will  now  be  given. 


MINIMUM  SALARY   LEGISLATION. 


Ix   THE  UXITED   StATES. 

Laws  providing  definitely  for  a  minimum  salary  for  teachers  in  the 
public  schools  have  been  enacted  in  eight  of  the  states,  namely,  Indiana, 
Maryland,  New  Jersey,  North  Carolina,  North  Dakota,  Ohio,  Pennsyl- 
vania and  West  Virginia.  In  some  of  the  other  states,  as  for  instance  in 
California,  Colorado  and  Oregon,  a  minimum  salary  is  established  in 
effect  by  legal  provisions  in  regard  to  the  apportionment  and  use  of  the 
school  funds.  California  provides  that  "all  the  state  school  money  and 
not  less  than  sixty  per  cent  of  the  county  school  money  shall  be  applied 
exclusively  to  the  payment  of  teachers'  salaries  of  the  primary  and 
grammar  schools.''*  This  practically  fixes  the  minimum  salary  of  the 
teachers  of  the  state  at  about  sixty  dollars  a  month.  Colorado  requires 
its  county  superintendents  in  estimating  the  amount  of  money  needed 
per  capita  to  enable  each  school  district  in  the  county  to  maintain  a  pub- 
lic school  four  months  in  each  year  to  base  their  estimates  on'  an  allow- 
ance to  each  teacher  of  $40.00  per  month,  f  In  Oregon  eighty-five  per 
cent  of  the  amount  received  by  any  district  from  the  county  school  tax 
and  the  irreducible  school  fund  must  be  applied  to  the  payment  of 
teachers'  salaries. §  So  also  in  Virginia  the  proceeds  of  the  state  and 
county  school  funds  must  be  used  exclusively  for  the  payment  of  teach- 
ers. Such  provisions  it  will  readily  be  seen  may  operate  practically  to 
establish  a  minimum  salary  throughout  the  state. 

The  agitation  for  the  enactment  of  minimum  salary  laws  is  of  course 
much  wider  than  is  indicated  by  the  number  of  states  in  which  there 
has  been  some  form  of  legislation  on  the  subject.  Such  laws  have  been 
recommended  in  many  of  the  states  either  by  the  state  superintendent  or 
the  State  Teachers'  Association,  or  both,  and  minimum  salary  bills  have 
been  introduced  in  the  legislature  of  several  of  the  states  but  have  failed 
of  passage.  Among  these  states  are  Michigan,  Minnesota,  Missouri, 
Nebraska,  Ehode  Island,  South  Dakota,  Virginia  and  Wisconsin.  In 
Minnesota  the  State  Educational  Association  appointed  a  committee  of 
seven  to  make  an  investigation  upon  the  status  of  teachers'  salaries  and 
living  expenses.  This  committee  in  its  report,  made  in  1906,  said  that 
"A  wisely  drawn  minimum  salary  law  is  the  one  remaining  important 


•  School  Law  of  California,  Sec.  1622,  page  42. 

t  Annotated  School  Laws,  Colorado,  1907.  Sec.  186,  page  195. 

§  School  Laws  of  Oregon,  Sec.  27,  page  19. 


248 

legislative  act  in  Minnesota,  to  make  the  former  acts  effective."*  The 
State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  in  jSTebraska,  in  an  address 
before  the  superintendents  and  principals'  association  at  Lincoln,  in 
October,  1906,  spoke  as  follows :  '^From  a  careful  study  of  this  question 
I  am  convinced  that  for  grade  and  rural  school  teachers  a  minimum 
salary  scliedule  would  not  only  raise  the  salaries  and  qualifications  of 
all  teachers,  but  that  the  public  would  be  repaid  many  times  over  for 
the  extra  expenses  necessary/' f  So  also  the  commissioner  of  public 
schools  of  Ehodle  Island  in  his  report  for  1906,  in  speaking  of  the  di- 
versity in  teachers'  salaries  in  different  parts  of  that  state,  said  that 
"A  minimum  salary  law  with  state  aid  would  effectively  improve  the 
situation  and,  in  solving  the  problem  of  low  salaries,  would  make  it 
easier  to  maintain  a  proper  standard  of  the  required  qualifications  of 
the  teachers,"§  and  definitely  recommended  the  passage  of  a  minimum 
salary  law  to  equalize  the  compensation  of  teachers.  In  Wisconsin  a 
minimum  wage  law  for  teachers  in  the  rural  districts  of  the  state  was 
discussed  and  recommended  by  the  state  superintendent  in  his  report 
for  1906.^  and  in  Virginia  minimum  wage  legislation  has  been  recom- 
mended both  by  the  state  superintendent  and  by  the  State  Teachers'  As- 
sociation. 

The  principle  of  a  minimum  wage  for  teachers  is  also  recognized  and 
practically  applied  in  the  hundreds  of  cities  of  the  country  which  have 
a  fixed  schedule  of  teachers'  wages.  The  city  of  Few  York,  however, 
is  operating  its  schools  under  a  minimum  wage  provision  enacted  by  the 
legislature  of  the  state.  This  law  which  went  into  effect  in  1899  is 
known  as  the  Ahem  Law.  It  originally  provided  that  the  board  of 
education  should  pay  not  less  than  certain  specified  sums  to  teachers  of 
specified  grades.  The  law  was  amended  in  1900  and  also  in  1903,  but  the 
principle  has  not  been  affected.  The  schedule  of  salaries  in  force  is 
elaborate  and  need  not  here  be  given.  "  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  no 
teacher  in  Hew  York  can  be  employed  for  less  than  six  hundred  dollars 
a  year,  while  the  actual  average  j-early  salary  of  kindergarten  and  grade 
teachers  is  $960  for  one  class  and  $1,5.56  for  another.  Concerning  the 
effect  of  the  law  Superintendent  Wm.  H.  Maxwell  of  New  York  City 
writes,  "It  has  worked  upon  the  whole  satisfactorily.  For  six  years  after 
its  adoption  it  operated  not  only  to  raise  materially  the  salaries  of  the 
teachers,  which  in  my  opinion  had  been  much  too  low,  but  to  stop  all 
agitation  of  the  salary  question  among  teachers." 

West  Vvrgifiia. — West  Virginia  was  the  first  of  the  states  to  fix  a  max- 
imum of  salary  for  teachers.  On  March  15,  18S2,  more  than  twenty-six 
years  ago,  the  legislature  of  the  state  passed  a  bill  providing  that  teachers 
holding  a  first  grade  certificate  should  be  paid  not  less  than  $25.00  per 
month,  those  holding  certificates  of  the  second  grade  not  less  than  $22.00 
per  month,  and  those  holding  certificates  of  the  third  grade  not  less  than 


*  Fourteenth  Biennial  Report,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Minnesota, 
1905-06 ;   pape   459. 

t  Nineteenth  Biennial  Report,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Nebraska, 
1906,  page   275. 

§  Thirty-seventh  Annual  Report,  Commissioner  of  Public  Schools,  Rhode  Island, 
1906,   page   88. 

•f  Twelfth  Biennial  Report,  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  Wisconsin,  1905- 
06,  pages  30-31, 


249 

$18. UU  per  month.  This  bill  has  been  amended  from  time  to  time,  so  that 
the  law  now  reads,  "Teachers  having  certificates  of  the  grade  of  number 
one,  shall  be  paid  not  less  than  $-i0.00  per  month;  those  holding  certifi- 
cates of  the  grade  of  number  two,  not  less  than  $35.00  per  month;  and 
those  holding  certificates  of  .the  grade  of  number  three  not  less  than 
$30.00  per  month."  All  applicants  for  teachers'  certificates  are  required 
to  pass  an  examination  in  the  following  subjects:  Orthography,  reading, 
penmanship,  arithmetic,  English  grammar  and  language,  physiology  and 
hygiene,  United  States  history,  State  history,  geography,  civil  govern- 
ment, and  the  theory  and  art  of  teaching,  with  additional  subjects  for 
certificates  good  in  graded  or  high  schools.  A  first  grade  certificate  is 
granted  to  applicants  who  attain  a  general  average  of  ninety  in  an  exam- 
ination on  these  subjects  and  not  lower  than  seventy-five  in  any  one 
branch.  A  second  grade  certificate  is  granted  upon  a  general  average 
of  eighty  with  no  grade  lower  than  sixty-eight ;  and  a  third  grade  certifi- 
cate is  issued  to  applicants  who  attain  a  general  average  of  seventy  with 
no  grade  lower  than  sixty.  Thus  the  wages  of  teachers  are  fixed  upon 
an  examination  percentage  basis. 

The  action  of  West  Virginia  in  this  matter  was  occasioned  by  the  par- 
simony of  boards  of  education  whose  views  "were  entirely  too  economical 
and  contracted  to  suit  the  progressive  spirit  of  the  age."  It  was  found 
that  some  of  the  boards  of  education  were  not  able  to  provide  for  the 
additional  outlay  necessary  to  pay  the  salaries  required  by  law.  The 
state  was  therefore  led  to  set  apart  from  the  general  school  fund  of  the 
state  fifty  thousand  dollars  to  aid  the  weaker  districts  in  paying  the  min- 
imum salaries  and  in  maintaining  a  six  months  term  of  school.  The 
effect  of  the  law  has  been  eminently  satisfactory.  The  average  salaries 
throughout  the  state  are  considerably  above  the  minimum  prescribed  by 
law.  This  is  the  testimony  of  the  state  superintendent  of  free  schools, 
the  Hon.  Thos.  C.  Miller,  who  writes  the  commission  that  "the  minimum 
salary  law  has  produced  good  results  in  this  state  and  while  the  average 
salary  is  considerably  above  the  minimum,  our  enactment  has  prevented 
many  districts  from  reducing  wages  below  a  respectable  standard." 

Indiana. — A  minimum  wage  law  was  enacted  in  Indiana  in  1901.  It 
was  amended  in  1903  and  again  in  1907.  This  law  at  present  reads  as 
follows :  "The  daily  wage  of  teachers  for  teaching  in  the  public  schools 
of  the  state  shall  not  be  less,  in  the  case  of  beginning  teachers,  than  an 
amount  determined  by  multiplying  21/2  cents  by  the  general  average 
given  such  teacher  in  his  highest  grade  of  license  at  the  time  of  con- 
tracting. For  teachers  having  liad  a  successful  experience  for  one  school 
year  of  not  less  than  six  months,  the  daily  wages  shall  not  be  less  than 
an  amount  determined  by  multiplying  three  cents  by  the  general  average 
given  such  teacher  on  his  highest  grade  of  license  at  the  time  of  con- 
tracting. For  teachers  having  had  a  successful  experience  of  three  or 
more  school  years  of  not  less  than  six  months  each,  the  daily  wages  shall 
not  be  less  than  an  amount  determined  by  multiplying  3I/2  cents  by  the 
general  average  given  such  teacher  on  his  highest  grade  of  license  at  the 
time  of  contracting.  All  teachers  nov.'  exempt  or  hereafter  exempt  from 
examination  shall  be.  paid,  as  daily  wages  for  teaching  in  the  public 


250 

schools,  not  less  than  an  amount  determined  b}'  multiplying  three  cents 
by  the  general  average  of  scholarship  and  success  given  such  teacher: 
Provided,  that  the  grade  of  scholarship  accounted  in  each  case  be  that 
given  at  the  teacher's  last  examination,  and  that  the  grade  of  success 
accounted  be  that  of  the  teacher's  term  last  preceding  the  date  of  con- 
tracting; and,  providing,  further,  that  two  per  cent  shall  be  added  to  the 
teacher's  general  average  of  scholarship  and  success  for  attending  the 
county  institute  the  full  number  of  days,  and  that  said  two  per  cent 
shall  be  added  to  the  average  scholarship  of  beginning  teachers."* 

In  the  year  following  the  enactment  of  the  original  law  in  Indiana 
the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  of  that  state  attributed  the  rise 
of  wages  which  had  taken  place  in  the  state  to  the  operation  of  the  law 
and  wrote,  "it  would  be  difficult  to  set  out  all  of  the  advantages  of  the 
wage  law — it  has  increased  the  demand  for  male  teachers,  placed  the 
minimum  wage  more  or  less  upon  the  basis  of  scholarship  and  successful 
experience;  protected  good  teachers  against  competition  with  incompe- 
tence and  given  county  superintendents  the  legal  support  they  have 
needed  in  the  careful  and  accurate  grading  of  teachers'  manuscripts."! 
Speaking  of  the  law  as  it  now  stands,  the  present  State  Superintendent 
of  Indiana,  the  Hon.  Fassett  A.  Cotton,  in  a  letter  to  the  commission, 
Avrites  as  follows :  "Our  minimum  teachers'  wage  law  is  working  well 
throughout  Indiana.  I  think  Indiana  has  never  had  a  law  which  has 
been  so  instrumental  in  arousing  professional  interest  as  has  the  late 
minimum  wage  law.  The  effect  throughout  the  teaching  body  in  In- 
diana is  to  stiumulate  the  teachers  to  a  greater  activity  in  properly  equip- 
ing  themselves  for  the  responsible  position  of  teaching.  There  are  now 
1,860  students  in  the  Indiana  State  Normal  School  and  the  private 
normal  schools  have  an  increased*  attendance.  The  colleges  and  univer- 
sities which  have  been  accredited  by  the  State  Board  of  Education  also 
have  an  increase  in  attendance  in  the  professional  departments." 

Indiana  also  provides  state  aid  for  the  weaker  townships  and  towns 
that  are  not  able  to  raise  a  sufficient  amount  from  local  taxation  to  carry 
on  their  schools  for  the  minimum  term  and  pay  their  teachers  according 
to  the  revised  minimum  law. 

Pennsylvania. — Pennsylvania  passed  a  salary  act  in  1903  fixing  the 
minimum  salary  at  $35.00  per  month.  In  1907  the  law  was  amended 
to  read  as  follows:  "The  salary  of  common  school  teachers,  in  districts 
of  this  commonwealth  receiving  state  appropriation,  shall  be  no  less 
than  $50.00  per  month  in  all  cases  where  the  teacher  holds  a  professional, 
permanent  or  normal  school  certificate,  and  has  had  two  years'  practice, 
and  presents  a  certificate  of  proficiency  in  said  practice,  for  said  time, 
from  the  superintendent  in  charge  of  said  teacher.  The  minimum  salary 
shall  be  $40.00  for  all  teachers  holding  certificates  of  less  grade  than  re- 
quired under  section  one  of  this  act.  And  that  the  state  shall  pay  the 
amount  of  increase  in  all  salaries  that  are  provided  for  under  this  act, 


•  School  Law  of  Indiana,  Sec.  37,  page  261. 

t  Report,  Superintendent  Public  Instruction,  Indiana,  1902,  page  10. 


351 

and  over  the  amount  of  salary  paid  in  each  school  district  in  this  com- 
monwealth in  one  thousand  nine  hundred  and  six,  and  said  increase  shall 
be  paid  out  of  the  increased  appropriation  for  the  common  schools."* 

The  testimony  in  regard  to  the  operation  and  effects  of  the  law  of 
Pennsylvania  is  similar  to  that  offered  in  regard  to  the  minimum  salary 
acts  of  other  states.  The  state  superintendent  of  Pennsylvania,  in  his 
report  for  1907,  say  that  "no  other  legislation  has  reached  the  remotest 
districts  of  the  state  like  the  minimum  salary  act.  It  will  take  away 
from  the  general  school  appropriation  $856,000.00.  The  effect  has  been 
to  raise  the  compensation  of  teachers  more  nearly  to  a  living  basis.  It 
is  possible  that  some  schools  will  not  be  better  taught  by  reason  of  the 
advance  of  teachers'  salaries,  but  the  tonic  effect  of  the  increase  will  be 
found  throughout  the  entire  school  system.  It  will  necessitate  an  ad- 
vance in  districts  in  which  domestics  were  earning  better  wages  than 
those  in  charge  of  the  schools."f  Again,  in  a  letter  to  the  commission,  he 
writes,  "the  minimum  salary  law  raised  the  wages  of  teachers  in  many 
rural  and  in  some  urban  school  districts.  It  has  enabled  teachers  to  go 
to  normal  schools  and  is  toning  up  the  entire  school  system." 

l^eiv  Jersey. — In  ISTew  Jersev  the  movement  for  an  increase  in  teachers' 
salaries  originated  in  Jersey  City  in  1897.  At  that  time  a  bill  prescrib- 
ing the  lowest  salary  which  could  be  paid  to  each  class  of  teachers  em- 
ployed was  introduced  in  the  legislature.  It  made  no  progress,  how- 
ever, not  even  being  reported  by  the  legislative  committee  to  which  it  had 
been  referred.  In  the  following  year,  1898,  according  to  an  account  of 
the  New  Jersey  legislature  furnished  the  committee  of  the  Xational 
Educational  Association  on  Salaries.  Tenure  and  Pensions  of  Public 
School  Teachers  in  the  United  States,  by  Mr.  Henry  Snyder,  superinten- 
dent of  the  schools  of  Jersey  City,  from  which  the  svnopsis  of  ISTew 
Jersey  lejrislation  is  taken,  a  similar  bill  was  introduced  with  no  better 
result.  "In  1900,  a  bill  fixing  a  minimum  salary  schedule,  in  which  the 
salaries  fixed  were  considerably  larger  than  those  contained  in  the  bills 
of  1897  and  1898,  was  prepared  by  the  friends  of  the  teachers,  and  earn- 
estly advocated  by  the  mavor  and  the  board  of  education.  This  bill 
became  a  law.  In  general,  it  prescribed  the  minimum  salaries  to  be  paid 
to  all  teachers.  The  bill  oricrinated  in  Jersey  Citv,  and  was  intended  for 
the  teachers  of  that  city.  In  order,  however,  that  there  might  be  no 
constitutional  objection  to  it,  it  had  to  be  made  general,  in  order  that 
it  mischt  apply  to  all  school  districts  of  the  state.  As  most  of  these  were 
hostile  to  a  bill  of  this  cliaracter,  a  referendum  clause  was  inserted  in 
the  bill,  in  accordance  with  which  the  provisions  of  the  bill  had  to  be 
sulmiitted  to  a  vote  of  the  people  in  any  school  district  desiring  to  adopt 
the  measure,  at  any  general  election.  In  accordance  with  the  intention 
of  those  who  advocated  the  ])ill  it  wns  submitted  to  the  voters  of  Jersey 
Citv  in  the  sprinsr  election  of  1900.  It  was  adopted  bv  a  verv  large 
majority.  Since  then  we  have  operated  under  the  schedule  provided  by 
the  act.  Since  this  act  was  passed  a  new  general  school  law  for  the 
whole  state  has  been  adopted.  This  general  school  law  has  embodied 
the  provisions  of  our  special  salary  act  descril)ed  above.     It  is  therefore 

*  Pennsylvania   School  I^w,   page  75. 

t  Report,    Superintendent   Public  Instruction,   Pennsylvania,   190T,   pages   7-8. 


253 

possible  for  an}-  school  district  in  the  state  to  adopt  the  advanced  sched- 
\\\es  provided  therein."  Jersey  City  is  the  only  city  which  has  adopted 
the  minimum  schedule.  The  provision  of  the  New  Je.rsey  law  applies 
only  to  teachers  of  graded  schools.  The  minima  established  depends 
upon  experience.  For  assistant  teachers  in  primary  and  grammar  schools 
and  kindergartens  the  lowest  salaries  are  from  $408.00  per  annum  to 
$936.00  per  annum.* 

Maryland. — The  minimum  salary  act  of  Maryland  was  enacted  in 
1904.  It  provided  that  "Xo  white  teacher  regularly  employed  in  a 
public  school  of  the  state  of  Maryland  having  an  average  attendance  of 
fifteen  pupils  or  more  shall  receive  as  a  salary  less  than  $300.00  per 
school  year."  Concerning  this  act  the  superintendent  of  public  educa- 
tion in  Maryland  writes,  in  a  letter  dated  1906  and  reprinted  in  the 
Minnesota  school  report,  1905-6,  page  553,  "The  minimum  salary  law 
passed  for  Maryland  in  1904  has  had  the  effect  to  increase  the  salaries 
of  1,500  teachers;  this  increase  varied  from  5  per  cent  to  30  per  cent, 
and,  in  my  opinion,  has  had  a  most  salutary  effect.  The  school  boards 
of  the  state  have  pretty  generally  endorsed  the  features  of  the  law.  In 
some  counties  where  the  county  school  tax  rate  had  to  be  raised,  there 
was  naturally  some  complaint,  but  these  were  few.  The  main  argument 
in  opposition  to  the  law  was  to  the  increase  of  the  state  tax  from  17  to 
23  cents  (i.  e.,  1.7  to.  3.3  mills.)  There  ousrht  to  be  an  addition  to 
the  present  minimum  salary  law — another  minimum  of  $450.00  to  such 
elementary  teachers  as  hold  first  class  certificates ;  the  class  of  certificates 
in  this  state  is  determined  by  the  power  and  efficiency  of  the  teacher." 
This  recommendation  of  the  Maryland  superintendent  has  now  become 
the  law.  The  last  general  assembly  of  that  state  amended  the  original 
act  so  that  at  present  the  schedule  of  salaries  for  capable  and  experienced 
teachers  is  as  follows :  For  teachers  holding  a  first  class  certificate  and 
having  three  years  teaching  experience  in  the  state  not  less  than  $350.00 ; 
five  years  $400.00,  and  eight  years  $450.00.  For  teachers  holding  second 
class  certificates  but  who  have  eight  years'  experience  the  minimum 
salary  has  been  raised  to  $350.00. 

North  Dal-ota. — In  North  Dakota  the  law  provides  that  the  district 
school  board  "shall  grade  the  salaries  of  teachers  for  the  district  in 
accordance  with  the  grade  of  certificate  and  no  teacher  holding  a  certifi- 
cate of  a  lower  grade  shall  receive  a  salary  equal  to  or  in  excess  of  that 
paid  to  a  teacher  holding  a  certificate  of  a  higher  grade  in  the  same 
district;  provided,  further,  that  no  teacher  holding  a  second  grade  cer- 
tificate shall  receive  less  than  $45.00  per  month  on  and  after  the  passage 
and  taking  effect  of  this  act.  And  nothing  in  this  section  shall  be  con- 
strued to  mean  that  teachers  holding  the  same  grade  of  certificate  must 
necessarily  receive  the  same  wage's."  This  law  was  passed  in  1905.  In 
regard  to  the  effects  of  this  law.  State  Superintendent  Stockwell  writes, 
"The  minimum  wage  law  has  had  a  tendency  to  keep  better  qualified 
teachers  in  the  work,  also  to  stimulate  those  seeking  employment  to  enter 
the  field  of  teaching.  The  rural  schools  of  Xorth  Dakota  are  certainly 
"in  better  condition  tlian  they  were  a  few  years  ago.     The  greatest  draw- 


*  New  Jersey  School  I^aws,   1903,   Article  26,   pages  97-102. 


253 


back  to  our  schools  is  the  fact  that  there  is  so  little  permanency  in  our 
teaching  force.  The  average  length  of  time  that  teachers  are  employed  in 
this  state  is  about  three  years.  The  minimum  salary  law  has  a  tendency 
to  increase  the  length  of  time  that  people  will  follow  teaching  for  the 
reason  that  it  is  now  a  little  better,  financially,  than  some  years  ago." 

Ohio. — In  1906  Ohio  passed  what  is  known  as  the  Duvall  Law.  It  pro- 
vides for  a  minimum  salary  of  $40.00  per  month  for  eight  months,  with 
state  aid  under  certain  conditions.  The  law  reads  as  follows :  "That 
no  person  shall  be  employed  to  teach  in  any  pulic  school  in  Ohio  for 
less  tlian  $40.00  a  month  and  that,  when  any  school  district  in  Ohio  has 
not  sufficient  money  to  pay  its  teachers  $40.00  per  month  for  eight 
months  of  the  year,  after  the  board  of  education  of  said  district  has 
made  the  maximum  school  levy  authorized  by  law,  three-fourths  of 
which  shall  be  for  the  tuition  fund,  then  said  school  district  .is  hereby 
authorized  to  receive  from  the  state  treasury  sufficient  money  to  make 
up  this  deficiency.  Any  board  of  education  having  such  a  deficit  shall 
make  affidavits  to  the  county  auditor,  who  shall  send  a  certified  statement 
of  the  facts  to  tbe  state  auditor.  The  state  auditor  shall  issue  a  voucher 
on  the  state  treasurer  in  favor  of  the  treasurer  of  said  school  district  for 
the  full  amount  of  the  deficit  in  the  tuition  fund.  No  district  shall  be 
entitled  to  state  aid,  as  provided  in  section  one  of  this  act,  unless  the 
number  of  persons  of  school  age  in  said  distrimct  shall  be  at  least  twenty 
times  the  number  of  teachers  employed  in  said  district." 

"The  effect  of  the  law,"  says  the  state  commissioner  of  education  of 
Ohio,  "has  been  manifest  in  a  very  marked  increase  in  the  monthly 
wages  of  teachers  as  will  be  seen  in  the  following  comparison  given  in 
my  last  report  which  has  not  as  yet  been  received  from  the  binders." 


1906 

1907 

Township  Elementary  Schools- 
Men  

$40 
37 

70 
50 

48 
39 

78 
57 

$44 

Women 

42 

Township  High  Schools- 
Men  

72 

53 

Separate  Districts,  Elementary  Schools- 
Men  

52 

43 

Seperate  Districts,  High  Schools- 
Men  .                 

83 

Wonien 

62 

In  another  letter  the  commissioner  explains  that  the  law  has  brought 
about  a  degree  of  dissatisfaction  on  account  of  the  fact  that  the  school 
funds  which  can  be  raised  in  some  of  the  districts  by  the  maximum 
tax  levy  of  twelve  mills  is  insufficient  to  increase  the  salary  of  all  the 
teachers  to  $40.00  per  month  without  reducing  the  salary  of  the  superin- 
tendent or  principal  employed  in  the  same  school,  lie  says  also  that  as 
the  law  has  been  in  effect  for  only  two  years  it  is  perhaps  a  little  early 
to  determine  what  the  real  lasting  effects  of  the  law  will  be  upon  the 
educational  interests  of  the  state. 

yorili  C'lrolina. — In  1907  Xorth  Carolina  enacted  a  law  wliich  pro- 
vides that  the  minimum  salarv  of  a  teacher  holding  a  five-vear  state 


254 

certificate  shall  be  $35.00  per  month,  and  that  the  holder  of  a  high 
school  certificate  shall  receive  not  less  than  $40.00  a  month.  The  same 
law  provides  also  a  maximum  salary  for  certain  grades  of  teachers. 

In  foreign  countries. — Among  European  countries  which  have  adopted 
minimum  salary  schedules  for  the  payment  of  teachers  are  France,  Ger- 
many, Sweden  and  Italy.  "It  is  worthy  of  note,"  says  Mr.  Eaymond  W. 
Sies  in  the  Educational  Review  for  January,  1908,  "that  France  and 
Germany,  which  are  far  in  the  lead  in  education,  likewise  take  the  lead 
in  the  matters  of  placing  the  compensation  of  teachers  on  a  stable  basis 
and  of  setting  the  limits  below  which  no  amount  of  false  economy  may 
reduce  it.  In  these  two  countries  teachers  are  civil  officers  responsible 
to  the  state,  and  as  such  they  are  paid  definite  salaries  by  the  state. 
These  constitute  the  legal  minimum  salaries.  In  addition  to  them  the 
communities  are  privileged  to  pay  such  local  salaries  as  they  are  able 
or  as  they  choose,  a  privilege  of  which  the  larger  communities  are  glad 
to  take  advantage,  particularly  in  Germany,  in  order  to  secure  the  ser- 
vices of  superior  talent."  Mr.  Sies  gives  also  the  salary  schedules  in 
Prussia  and  Ftance  with  some  comments  upon  the  situation  in  those 
countries.  "In  Prussia,"  he  says,  "which  constitutes  two-thirds  of  the 
German  Empire,  if  no  recent  alterations  have  been  made,  the  minimum 
salaries  of  regular  men  teachers  in  the  elementary  schools  for  the  masses 
vary  from  $180.00  per  year  to  something  over  $400.00  according  to  length 
of  service  and  rank.  Those  of  women,  who  comprise  a  small  proportion 
of  the  teachers  of  Germany  even  in  the  elementary  schools,  are  fixed  at 
figures  somewhat  lower.  In  1905  the  salaries  of  regular  men  teachers 
in  the  French  schools  for  the  masses,  the  elementary  primary  schools, 
and  the  superior  primary  or  high  schools,  varies  from  $400.00  to  $600.00 
in  the  latter,  likewise  according  to  length  of  service  and  rank.  i\.s  in  the 
case  of  Prussia  the  salary  schedules  for  women  in  the  same  schools  are 
somewhat  lower.  In  both  countries  the  compensation  of  the  teachers  in 
the  schools  for  the  classes,  of  which  the  gymnasia  in  Germany  and  the 
lycees  in  France  are  the  best  known  types,  is  also  fixed  at  minimum 
figures  by  salary  schedules  established  and  paid  by  the  state.  The  same 
is  true  of  the  compensation  of  all  directors  or  principals.  In  both  cases 
the  salaries  are  of  course  made  decidedly  better  than  those  just  given. 
Before  passing  judgment  upon  the  adequacy  of  these  minimum  salaries 
of  France  and  Germany  several  facts  should  be  taken  into  consideration. 
The  following  are  the  chief  of  these.  (1)  The  standard  of  living  is 
distinctly  lower  in  France  and  Germany  than  in  the  United  States. 
(2)  Teachers  in  both  countries  in  accordance  with  law  are  provided  by 
their  communities  with  free  residences  or  the  equivalent  in  money,  in 
addition  to  their  salaries.  (3)  Those  teachers  who  withdraw  from  the 
services  after  a  specified  time  by  reason  of  ill  health  or  age  or  other 
disability,  are  legally  entitled  to  substantial  pensions  the  amount  thereof 
varying  with  length  of  previous  service  and  other  considerations,  and  on 
the  death  of  a  teacher  his  widow  and  children  are  pensioned  according 
to  fixed  regulations.  In  this  connection  we  should  take  note  of  the  fact 
that  the  legal  provisions  for  free  residence  or  the  money  equivalent  and 


*  School  Laws  of  Free  Public  Schools  of  the  State  of  Delaware,  1S98-1907,  p.  41. 


255 

for  pensions  partake  of  the  nature  of  legal  regulatiQn  of  the  minimum 
compensation  of  the  teachers.  The  money  equivalent  of  free  residence 
may  with  perfect  propriety  be  added  to  the  minimum  salary  schedules 
throughout,  which  would  increase  them  from  ten  to  twenty  per  cent,  but 
strictly  speaking  the  pensions  are  not  salaries." 

In  Sweden  the  common  schools  are  primarily  the  concern  of  the  parish. 
They  receive  assistance  from  the  state,  however,  and  are  under  the  su- 
perintendence of  state  and  ecclesiastical  authorities.  The  salaries  of 
regular  teachers  are  apportioned  in  five  gradations.  A  public  school 
teacher  with  a  fixed  appointment  can  be  removed  only  upon  judicial 
trial  and  sentence.*  In  Italy  the  state  has  fixed  the  minimum  salary 
of  rural  teachers  in  the  lower  elementary  schools  (the  first,  second  and 
third  school  years)  in  communes  of  less  than  two  thousand  inliabitants 
at  $140.00  a  year  for  men  and  $113.00  a  year  for  women.  The  schedule 
adopted  provides  higher  minima  for  teachers  in  rural  communes  of 
larger  population  and  still  higher  for  teachers  in  the  lower  and  higher 
elementary  town  schools.  The  salaries  fixed  by  the  national  government 
may  be  supplemented  by  the  communes,  f 

Objections. 

The  main  objections  to  minimum  salary  legislation  must  now  be  con- 
sidered. 

The  first  objection  that  will  probably  suggest  itself  is  that  inasmuch 
as  the  weaker  districts  will  require  state  aid  to  enable  them  to  pay  the 
salaries  required  by  law,  it  will  impose  too  large  a  financial  burden  upon 
the  state  adopting  such  legislation.  Undoubtedly  there  are  in  most  of 
the  states  many  districts  which  could  not  possibly  provide  a  sufficient 
amount  by  taxation  to  pay  minimum  salary  wages  to  teachers,  but  it 
is  just  these  districts  which,  if  education  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  state  func- 
tion, should  receive  assistance  in  their  effort  to  provide  a  good  common 
school  education  for  their  children. 

In  those  states  which  have  enacted  minimum  salary  laws  state  assist- 
ance to  the  poorer  districts  is  provided.  In  Indiana,  for  instance,  the 
school  law  declares  that  when  a  school  corporation  has  levied  the  highest 
amount  of  taxes  authorized  by  law  and  is  yet  unable  to  maintain  its 
public  schools  for  the  legal  minimum  term  and  pay  its  teacher  the  legal 
minimum  wage,  it  shall  receive  from  the  state  the  amount  necessary  to 
maintain  the  schools  for  the  minimum  legal  term.  This  law  has  been 
declared  by  the  state  superintendent  of  Indiana  to  be  proving  itself 
"timely  and  wise."  The  amount  of  state  aid  thus  required  in  190G 
was  $30,536.38.  The  laws  of  West  Virginia  and  Ohio  bearing  upon 
this  subject  were  quoted  in  a  preceding  division  of  this  report.  The 
states  with  minimum  salar)^  laws,  however,  are  not  the  only  states  which 
provide  assistance  from  the  state  treasury  for  the  maintenance  of  schools 
in  the  poorer  districts.  The  principle  has  wide  recognition.  If  educa- 
tion is  to  be  regarded  as  a  state  function,  and  it  is  and  has  been  so 


♦Report,  Commissioner  of  Education,  1904,  "Vol.  I,  Chap.  11. 
t  Report.   Commissioner  of  Education.   1906.  Vol.   T.   pp.   SQ-Sl. 


256 

regarded  in  this  coiintr}-  from  the  beginning,  the  state  lias  the  right  t6 
prescribe  a  minimum  amount  of  education  which  every  child  may  receive. 
And  when  it  does  fix  that  amount  it  ought  to  assume  the  corresponding 
duty  of  assisting  the  township  or  the  district  Avhich,  after  taxing  itself 
to  the  limit,  is  still  unable  to  provide  that  minimum. 

It  must  be  admitted,  then,  that  minimum  salary  legislation  requires 
the  state  to  spend  more  money  for  educational  purposes.  But  money 
exjjended  to  give  teachers  a  living  wage  would  be  money  well  spent. 
Teachers  would  respond  to  the  increased  recognition  demanded  by  the 
higher  wage  and  the  public  would  be  in  a  position  to  demand  of  them  in- 
creased qualifications. 

Another  objection  to  fixing  the  minimum  salary  of  teachers  by  the 
State  is  that  boards  of  education  and  boards  of  directors  will  regard  the 
salary  fixed  as  an  authorized  rating  of  the  value  of  teaching  and  the 
wages  of  all  teachers  alike  will  tend  toward  the  minimum  allowed.  This 
is  a  reasonable  objection  and  in  all  probability  it  will  have  that  efiiect 
on  the  minds  of  some  of  those  who  employ  teachers.  But  it  is  more 
probable  that  in  those  districts  in  which  the  salaries  are  now  above  the 
minimum  that  they  are  practically  fixed  either  by  custom  or  by  the 
present  estimate  of  the  community  with  respect  to  the  value  of  teaching. 
In  such  districts  salaries  will  not  be  afi^ected  by  minimum  legislation. 
The  decisive  answer  to  this  objection,  however,  is  that  the  states  which 
have  enacted  minimum  legislation  the  effect  suggested  has ,  not  been 
produced.  If  the  reader  will  turn  back  to  the  description  of  the  mini- 
mum wage  laws  in  the  various  states,  and  the  declaration  of  the  state 
superintendents  in  regard  to  the  operation  of  these  laws,  he  will  not  be 
troubled  by  this  objection. 

Still  another  question  is  raised  in  this  connection,  and  that  is  would 
not  a  minimum  salary  law  place  a  premium  upon  incompetency  ?  Would 
not  the  smaller  and  weaker  school  districts  be  likely  to  prefer  that  their 
school  authorities  employ  teachers  of  limited  attainment,  teachers  hold- 
ing second  grade  certificates,  for  instance,  rather  than  those  holding 
first  grade  certificates?  It  may  be  that  in  some  instances  this  also  will 
be  the  case,  but  in  connection  with  the  recommendation  of  the  commis- 
sion in  regard  to  a  minimum  salary  law  it  has  also  recommended  in  its 
plan  of  certification,  as  has  already  been  pointed  out,  that  the  standard  of 
qualifications  of  teachers  be  raised.  The  two  recommendations  should 
be  considered  together.  The  commission  believes  that  any  teacher  who 
meets  the  standard'  of  requirements  for  either  class  of  certificates  is 
entitled  to  the  wages  prescribed.  The  interest  of  the  community  in  its 
own  public  schools  must  be  relied  upon  to  determine  whetlier  the  one 
class  or  the  other  shall  be  employed. 

There  are  two  or  three  other  objections  of  a  doctrinaire  nature  which  it 
may  be  worth  while  Ijriefly  to  consider.  A  stock  objection  to  almost  every 
sort  of  advanced  legislation  is  that  it  is  unconstitutional.  If  the  con- 
stitution stood  in  the  way  of  necessary'  legislation,  the  situation  would 
make  valid  an  objection  to  tlie  constitution,  not  to  the  legislation  itself. 
The  constitution  which  does  not  allow  freedom  for  all  legislation  essen- 
tial  to   the  well-being  of  the   state   is   a   constitution  which   obviously 


257  ^ 

should  lie  amended.  But  happily  in  juost  cases  minimum  salary  legisla- 
tion is  i)lainly  in  accordance  with  the  State  Constitution  if  it  is  not 
enjoined  by  it.  The  Constitution  of  Illinois,  for  instance,  expressly  de- 
clares that  "the  General  Assembly  shall  provide  a  thorough  and  etticient 
system  of  free  schools,  whereby  all  children  of  this  State  may  receive  a 
good  common  school  education.''  But  with  253  districts  unable  within 
the  present  limit  of  taxation  to  maintain  a  six  months  school  and  with 
other  districts  unwilling  to  pay  the  wages  necessary  to  secure  a  compe- 
tent teacher  the  school  system  of  Illinois  can  not  be  said  to  be  in  any 
complete  sense  either  thorough  or  efficient.  The  Constitution  leaves  to 
the  General  Assembly  discretion  as  to  the  means  to  be  employed  to  in- 
crease the  thoroughness  and  efficiency  of  the  system.  The  commission  is 
of  the  opinion  that  minimiun  salar\'  legislation  is  at  the  present  time  a 
necessary  means  to  secure  the  desired  end.  Furthermore,  if  minimum 
salary  legislation  were  unconstitutional  it  would  in  all  probability  have 
been  so  declared  by  some  of  the  courts  of  the  eight  different  states  in 
wliich  such  legislation  has  been  enacted.  But  thus  far  this  has  not  be^n 
done,  nor  does  it  seem  likely  that  any  court  will  so  decide.  Courts  them- 
selves recognize  the  principle  that  the  safety  of  the  people  is  the  highest 
law.  This  objection  may  then  be  dismissed  without  further  considera- 
tion. 

Aga'in,  it  may  be  said  that  the  legislation  proposed  is  "class  legisla- 
tion." This  in  one  sense  is  true.  Teachers  are  a  class.  They  are  a  class 
of  jjuldic  servants.  But  so  are  coiinty  superintendents  and  other  elective 
and  appointive  officials.  The  minimum  amount  that  may  be  paid  to 
county  superintendents  is  prescribed  by  law,  as  are  also  the  salaries  of 
the  great  majority  of  public  officers.  Why,  then,  should  a  law  fixing  the 
minimum  salary  of  teachers  be  declared  obnoxious  on  the  ground  that 
it  is  class  legislation  ?  If  it  is  class  legislation  in  the  one  case  it  is  class 
legislation  in  the  other.  It  is  illogical  to  oppose  a  minimum  salary  law 
for  those  who  teach  and  to  favor  such  a  law  for  those  who  supervise. 
The  fact  is,  to  call  the  legislation  proposed  class  legislation  does  not  con- 
stitute a  valid  objection.  There  is  no  necessary  principle  of  legislation 
involved  in  the  matter.  The  only  question  to  determine  is  will  a  mini- 
mum salary  law  increase  the  standard  of  teaching  and  promote  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  schools. 

MixiiiUM  Salaries  Proposed  by  the  CoMiiissiox. 

As  to  the  salaries  to  be  paid  to  the  teachers  of  the  State  the  com- 
mission recommends  the  enactment  of  a  law  providing  that  the  mini- 
mum wage  of  teachers  holding  a  second  grade  county  certificate  shall  be 
$45.00  per  month  or  $315.00  a  year;  and  that  the  minimum  wage  for 
teachers  holding  a  first  grade  county  certificate  shall  be  $55.00  a  month 
or  $385.00  a  year.  As  a  necessary  supplement  to  this  provision  in  re- 
gard to  salaries  the  commission  recommends  that  all  the  districts 
which,  after  levying  the  maximum  school  tax  permitted  by  law,  are  un- 


-17  E  C 


258 

able  to  jDay  these  ininiiuuin  salaries,  and  maintain  their  schools  lor  the 
proposed  terms,  shall  receive  from  the  State  the  assistance  necessary  to 
enable  them  to  do  so. 

In  the  attempt  to  prepare  a  bill  to  provide  for  minimum  salaries, 
however,  the  commission  has  encountered  two  very  serious  difficulties. 
The  first  of  these  is  its  inability  w'ith  the  statistics  at  hand  to  deter- 
mine even  approximately,  not  to  say  exactly,  the  extent  to  which  ex- 
penses for  school  maintenance  would  be  increased  by  such  a  law,  and, 
second,  its  lack  of  information  with  respect  to  how  many  districts  in 
the  State  would  be  unable  with  the  maximum  tax  levy  allowed  by  law 
to  pa}'  their  teachers  the  minimum  wages  prescribed.  Minimum  salaries 
involve  not  merely  an  increase  in  school  taxes  but  also  the  principle  of 
State  aid  for  the  weaker  districts.  A  bill  to  provide  for  minimum  sal- 
arises  should,  therefore,  be  accompanied  by  a  statement  showing  at  least 
approximately  the  additional  amount  of  revenue  which  would  need  to  be 
raised  and  also  the  amount  of  State  aid  required  to  carry  the  proposed 
law  into  effect.  This  statement  the  commission  is  unable  to  make, 
though  it  has  made  an  effort  to  collect  the  necessary  data.  Without 
more  time  than  is  now  at  its  disposal  the  commission  will  be  unable  to 
assemble  all  the  essential  facts  upon  which  to  base  a  definite  proposal 
for  legislation  in  regard  to  increasing  the  salaries  of  teachers. 


REFERENCES. 


Volume   and   page   are    separated   by   colon. 
Clark,  J.  B. — Salaries  of  teachers.     Columbia  University  Quarterly,   1:111;  March, 

1899. 
Cotton,  F.  A. — Teachers'  salaries  and  how  affected  by  the  operation  of  the  mini- 
mum-salary   law.    National    Educational    Association,    50th    anniversary    volume, 
1907;    p.    132-41. 
Dyke,   C.    B. — Economic  aspect  of  teachers'    salaries.      Columbia   University   contri- 
butions  to   philosophy,    psychology  and   education,    7 :   No.    2. 
Felmley,  David — The  next  step  in  the  salary  campaign.     National  Educational  As- 
sociation,   50th   anniversary  volume,    1907  ;    p.    1S3-91. 
Harper,  W.  R. — Are  school  teachers  underpaid?     In  his  Trend  in  higher  education, 

1905  ;  p.   186-94. 
Harris,  W.  T. — The  future  of  teachers'  salaries.     National  Educational  Association 

Proceedings,    1905  ;   p.    67-79. 
Indiana   State    Teachers'    Association.      Report   of   the    committee    on    taxation     and 

teachers'    salaries.      1904. 
Lane,    A.    C. — Taxation    and   teachers'    salaries.      National    Educational    Association 
Proceedings,   1902;   323-28. 
Discussion,    p.    328-31. 
McCain,  G.  N. — The  minimum  salary  fight.     Journal  of  Education   (New  Eng'.and), 

v.    58:303-5.       (Nov.    5,    1903.) 
National  Educational  Association. — Report  of  the  committee  on  salaries,  tenure  and 
pensions  of  public  school  teachers  in  the  United  States,   1905. 

Minimum  salary  laws  of  Indiana,   Maryland,   Pennsylvania  and  West  Vir- 
ginia,   p.    143-45. 
Salary  studies. — Journal  of  Education   (New  England),  v.   58-59.    (Oct.   1,   1903-Jan. 

28,   1904,) 
Sies,   R.  W. — Legal  regulation  of  minimum  salaries  for  teachers.     Educational  Re- 
view,  35:10-21.      (January,   1908.) 

Considers  the  present  status  of  minimum  salary  legislation  in  the  United 
States  and  includes  a  brief  preliminary  survey  of  the  situation  in 
foreign  countries.  Gives  the  provisions  of  the  minimum  salary  law 
in  West  Virginia,  Indiana,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  ^laryland,  North 
Dakota,   Ohio,  North  Carolina  and  New  York  City. 


259 

Sies,   R.   W. — Comparative   study  of  minimum   salarv   legislation.      Educational    Re- 
view.  35:285-99.      (March,    1908.) 

Considers  comparatively  the  question  of  ends  and  values. 
Sommer.   F.  H. — Shall  the  state  regulate  teachers'   salaries?     National  Educational 

Association   Proceedings,   1905  ;    831-36. 
Warriner,   E.   C. — A  minimum  salary  law  for  teacliers.     School  Board  Journal,   33  ; 
No.   5,   p.   13;   No.   6,   p.   15.      (November  and  December,    1906.) 

Paper  read  before  Michigan  School  Board  Convention,  October,   1906. 
Defines  minimum  salary  laws   by   reference   to  existing  laws  and   presents 
arguments  for  the  enactment  of  such  a  law  in  Michigan. 
Wisconsin  State  Teachers'  Association — Teachers'  wages  and  cost  of  living ;  an  in- 
vestigation pertaining  to  the  remuneration  of  teachers  in  the  state  of  Wiscon- 
sin as  related  to  the  cost  of  living  and  the  efficiency  of  the  teaching  service. 
Wisconsin  Public  Instruction  Bulletin  of  Information,   11.     1904. 
Note. — For  assistance  in  preparing  the  foregoing  bibliography  the  commission 
is  indebted  to  the   New  York   State   Library.     Many  additional    references   may  be 
found  in  the  Educational  Review,  January,  1907. 


?eo 


THE  RESTORATION  OF  THE  TWO  MILL  TAX. 


The  lirst  free  school  law  of  Illinois,  passed  January  15,  1855,  pro- 
vided for  the  levy  and  assessment  of  two  mills  upon  each  dollar's  valu- 
ation of  all  the  taxable  j^roperty  in  the  State  for  the  support  of  common 
schools.  As  revised  in  18?3  the  law  declared  that  "the  common  school 
fund  of  this  State  shall  consist  of  the  proceeds  of  a  two  mill  tax,  to  be 
levied  upon  each  dollar's  valuation  of  the  property  in  the  State,  an- 
nuallj',  until  otherwise  provided  by  law,"  etc.  On  May  3,  1873,  the 
act  to  provide  the  necessary  revenue  for  state  purposes  provided  that 
there  should  be  levied  "for  State  school  nurposcs,  to  be  designated  State 
School  Fund  (in  lieu  of  the  two  mill  tax  therefor)  $1,000,000  annually."' 
The  same  amount  has  been  appropriated  for  each  year  since  that  time. 
For  the  reasons  now  to  be  given  the  commission  respectfully  advises  and 
recommends  the  striking  out  of  the  provision  in  section  189  of  the  gen- 
eral school  law,  "until  otherwise  provided  by  law,"  in  order  that  the  law 
may  provide  that  the  State  appropriation  for  the  support  of  schools  may 
consist  hereafter,  as  it  did  immediately  prior  to  1873,  of  the  proceeds  of 
a  two  mill  tax  levied  upon  the  equalized  assessed  value  of  all  the  prop- 
erty of  the  State. 

Because  of  the  practice  begun  in  1873  of  ''otherwise''  providing  by 
law  for  the  amount  appropriated  by  the  State  for  the  support  of  schools, 
the  State  school  fund  has  remained,  as  before  pointed  out,  at  the  amount; 
then  fixed,  namely,  $1,000,000.  Thirty-six  years  have  passed.  During 
that  time  the  population  of  the  State  has  more  than  doubled.  The  school 
population  has  increased  almost  one  hundred  per  cent.  The  wealth  of 
the  State  has  quadrupled.  School  expenses  have  multiplied  four  and 
one-half  times,  but  the  share  of  the  State  in  the  support  of  the  school-' 
has  remained  the  same.  The  following  table,  although  the  figures  are 
not  altogether  reliable,  will  show  Avith  sufficient  clearness  the  growth 
of  the  State's  needs  of  educational  facilities,  and  its  rapid  increase  in  its 
al)ility  to  pay  for  them,  since  it  adopted  the  unfortunate  practice  of 
limiting  its  ajjpropriation  for  school  purposes  to  $1,000,000. 


Total 

School 

Year,  popula- 

popula- 

1    tion. 

tion. 

True  valuation 
of  property. 


Equalized     I        School 
assessment.   |  expenditures. 


District 
taxes. 


State 
appropria- 
tion. 


1870   2,.=)39.891  8fi2,624l 

1873*2.700.000'  909.828 

1880    3,077, 871i  1.0I0.8'>1 

1890    .3.82(i.33r  1,096,700 

1900    4. 821,. 550  1.362.700 

190)    .5,319,150  1,445.851 

1908*5,600,000  1.500,066 


$  2.121.680,759 
2,500,000,000 
.3, 210.  f  00. 000 
5,066.751,719 
6,976.476,400 
iS,  816. 556, 19 
10,000,000,000 


$    510,886,683 

1.355,401,317 

786,616.394 

808,892,782' 

809,733.405 

1,095,681,5.57 

1,263,500,487 


$  6,881,537  62 

$  4,780.988 

7,65,5.268  32 

5,664.587 

7,. 531, 942  00 

5,735,478 

11,64i.l26  00 

8,828.120 

17.7.57,145  00 

15.909.436 

22.823,191  00 

20.173.619 

32,227,605  06 



$1,000,000 
1.000.000 
1.000.000 
1.000.000 
1.000  oco 
1.000,000 
1,000.000 


♦Estimated. 
^1901. 


261 

Although  the  change  from  a  two  mill  tax  to  the  appro])riation  of  a 
lump  sum  has  proven  to  be  exceedingly  unfortunate  for  the  schools, 
it  was  originally  made  on  the  recommendation  of  no  less  a  friend  of 
tiie  scuools  than  Xewton  Bateman  himself.  In  his  report  for  1871-2 
Jiaieman  recommended  "that  the  designation  of  a  particular  rate  of 
school  tax  to  be  levied  by  the  Auditor  for  the  support  of  common  schools, 
be  discontinued  and  dispensed  with,  and  that,  in  lieu  thereof,  a  specific 
annual  sum  be  appropriated  by  the  General  Assembly  for  the  support  of 
schools.''*  If  Newton  Bateman  could  have  anticipated  that  as  a  result 
of  this  recommendation  the  State  appropriation  for  schools  would  have 
increased  only  by  $1UU,UUU  in  forty  years,  he  would  have  stood  aghast 
at  what  would  have  appeared  to  be  his  own.  want  of  foresight.  Evi- 
dently he  never  dreamed  that  "the  specific  annual  sum"  to  be  appro- 
priated would  not  increase  from  year  to  year  so  as  to  correspond  ap- 
jjroximately  to  the  increase  of  a  two  mill  tax,  or  so  as  to  exceed  it.  In 
the  same  paragraph  in  which  he  recommends  the  discontinuance  of  the 
earlier  method  of  providing  the  State's  share  of  the  school  expenses  he 
recommended  "that  the  amount  of  common  school  revenue  raised  directly 
by  the  State,  be  largely  increased,  so  that  the  local  district  school  taxes 
may  be  ijroportionately  diminished,  and  the  burdens  and  benefits  of  the 
school  system,  financially  considered,  more  nearly  equalized."  And  he 
concludes  his  recommendation  by  declaring  that  in  his  opinion  the 
doubling  of  the  sum  then  approjsriated  would  prdve  a  wise  and  benefi- 
cial measure. 

Why,  then,  was  the  two  mill  tax  dispensed  with?  inside  from  the 
convenience  of  appropriating  a  lump  sum,  and  the  further  convenience 
of  being  able  to  anticipate  with  some  certainty  the  amount  of  revenue 
available,  there  was  evidently  some  fear  on  the  part  of  those  who  de- 
sired a  constantly  increasing  appropriation  that  under  the  loose  and  ar- 
bitrary methods  of  assessment  then  in  vogue  the  revenues  from  the  two 
mill  tax  might  decrease.  The  equalized  assessed  valuation  of  the  prop- 
erty of  the  State  in  1873,  as  shown  in  the  table  just  given,  was  $1,355,- 
401,317.  It  was  considerably  higher  then  than  it  has  ever  been  since.  It 
declined  with  varying  fluctuations  until  1898  at  which  time  it  was 
$778,474,910.  The  amount  derived  from  the  two  mill  tax  when  Bate- 
man recommended  the  change  was  $900,000.  The  appropriation  of  a 
million  dollars  was  a  considerable  increase,  and  was  no  doubt  hailed  as 
a  great  victory  by  Bateman  and  all  other  friends  of  the  schools.  The 
following  is  a  statement  of  the  income  derived  from  the  two  mill  tax 
for  the  years  185(5-1873,  at  wdnch  time  the  practice  of  appropriating 
$1,000,000  annually  was  adopted: 


♦Ninth    Biennial    Report,    Superintendent    Public    Instruction,    Illinois,     1S71-2, 
p.    229. 


262 


Year. 

Assessed 

Income    from  2 

Year. 

1       Assessed 

Income   from  2 

valuation. 

mill  tax. 

1     valuation. 

1 

mill  tax. 

1856 

$349,951,372  00 

$606,809  51 

1865 

1$  392,327.906  00 

$    693,000  00 

1857 

407,477,367  00 

660,000  00 

1866 

410.795,876  00 

750,000  00 

1858 

403.110,321  00 

743,000  00 

1867 

504,683,553  00 

750,000  00 

1859 

366,702,043  00 

763,231  00 

1868 

474,480,877  00 

900,100  00 

1860 

367,227,742  00 

738,183  00 

1869 

489,004,775  00 

No  report. 

1861 

330,823,749  00 

C78.751  00 

1870 

480,664,058  00 

885, 120  00 

1862 

312,924,349  00 

600,000  00 

1871 

505,676,311  00 

900,000  00 

1863 

331.999.871  00 

600,000  00 

1872 

510,886,683  00 

900,000  00 

1861 

356,877.837  00 

660,000  00 

1873 

1,355,401,317  00 

1,000,000  00 

From  this  statement  it  will  be  seen  not  only  that  the  proceeds  of  tlie 
two  mill  tax  were  a  variable  quantity^  but  also  that  the  assessed  valua- 
tion of  the  real  and  jjersonal  property  of  the  State  was  also  subject  to 
strange  fluctuations.  It  will  be  observed  too  that  in  18G8  on  an  assessed 
valuation  of  $474,480,877  the  income  from  the  two  mill  tax  was  the 
same  as  in  1872  on  an  assessed  valuation  of  $510,886,683.  In  1873 
the  assessed  valuation  increased  to  two  and  one-half  times  what  it  was 
in  1872.  On  this  new  basis  of  taxation  the  two  and  one-half  mill  tax, 
making  due  allowance  for  the  usual  abatements,  would  have  amounted  to 
at  least  $2,500,000.  But  from  1873  to  1899,  the  time  at  which  the  as- 
sessment was  fixed  at  one-fifth  of  the  total  value,  the  basis  of  taxation 
fluctuated  with  a  general  decline  until  in  1898  it  amounted  to  only 
$778,474,910,  on  which  the  two  mill  tax  would  have  probably  amounted 
to  $1,500,000.  If  levied  on  the  present  assessed  valuation  of  the  prop- 
erty of  the  State,  which  is  $1,263,500,487,  the  proceeds  of  a  two  mill 
tax,  after  making  allowance  for  abatements,  would  amount  to  a  sum 
approximately  $2,500,000. 

It  may  be  surprising  to  learn  that  at  one  time  the  State  appropria- 
tion for  schools  was  ten  times  as  much  on  the  dollar  as  at  present.  By 
an  "Act  providing  for  the  establishment  of  free  schools,"  approved  Jan- 
uary 15,  1825,  it  was  provided  that  there  should  be  appropriated,  for  the 
encouragement  and  support  of  schools,  "two  dollars  out  of  every  hun- 
dred hereafter  to  be  received  in  the  treasury  of  the  State."  If  such  an 
act  were  now  in  force  the  State  appropriation  for  schools  would  amount 
to  over  $25,000,000  instead  of  $1,000,000.  The  idea  of  a  twenty-five 
million  dollar  State  appropriation  for  schools  in  Illinois  almost  takes 
the  lireath  away,  and  to  propose  anything  like  that  sum  would  stamp 
one  as  visionary.  And  yet  New  Jersey,  with  a  school  expenditure  of 
considerablv  less  than  one-half  that  of  Illinois,  makes  a  State  appro- 
priation of  over  $10,000,000. 

That  the  amount  now  contril)uted  by  the  State  of  Illinois  to  the  sup- 
port of  her  common  schools  is  small  in  comparison  with  the  appropria- 
tion of  some  of  the  other  states  will  be  seen  by  a  glance  at  the  following 
statement  sliowing  the  relative  amounts  appropriated  ])y  some  of  the 
iiinro  ])opulnus  states. 


263 


State. 


New  Jersey... 
Pennsylvania . 

California 

New  York 

Kentucky 

Wisconsin 

Indiana 

Washington  . . 

Minnesota 

Maryland 

Mississippi 

West  Virginia 
Illinois 


Population   in 
1907. 


Total  expenditure 
for  sctiools. 


2,248,332 
7,032,915 
1,675,211 
8,386,(573 
2, 349, 352 
2,292,911 
2,743,305 
630,712 
2,071.318 
1,290,000 
1,734,439 
1,096,006 
5,518,190 


$14,951, 

34,070, 

12,500, 

53,000, 

3,  870, 

12.505, 

12,879, 

8.000, 

13,4<;3, 

3,400, 

3,250, 

4,271, 

32,227, 


775  24 
916  94 
000  00* 
000  00 
016  00 
000  00 
015  57 
000  00 
211  00 
000  00 
000  00 
153  00 
tj05  06 


Amount  of  State 

appropriation    for 

support  of 

schools. 


$10,097, 
7,500, 
6,000, 
5, 636, 
2,661, 
2,656, 
2,612, 
2,2il, 
2,000. 
1,415, 
1,250, 
1,067, 
1,000, 


403  92 
000  00 
000  00 
000  00 
867  20 
937  00 
188  82 
068  55 
000  00 
351  25 
000  00 
788  25 
000  00 


Percent  of 

State 
appropria- 
tion. 


22 
54 
11 
69 
21 
20 
28 
15 
41 
3» 
25 
3 


♦Estimated. 

From  this  statement  it  will  be  seen  that  twelve  of  the  states,  some 
of  them  having  less  than  one-fifth  of  the  population,  make  larger  ap- 
propriations for  the  support  of  schools,  both  absolutely  and  relatively  to 
the  total  school  expenditures,  than  Illinois.  In  more  than  hatf  of  them 
the  State  appropriation  is  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  total  amount  ex- 
pended for  schools.  At"  a  joint  meeting  of  the  Educational  Commissions 
of  Illinois,  Pennsylvania,  Iowa,  Kansas  and  Washington,  held  in  Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  on  July  2,  1908,  it  was  moved  and  carried  "that  it  be  the 
sense  of  the  members  of  these  state  commissions  that  not  less  than  one- 
fourth  of  the  cost  of  maintaining  the  schools  of  a  state  should  come  from 
the  State  treasury ;  and  that,  when  the  larger  corporations  of  a  state 
can  not  be  taxed  by  the  school  districts,  -but  pay  state  taxes  only,  not 
less  than  one-half  the  expense  of  maintaining  the  schools  of  the  ^tate 
should  come  from  the  State  treasury  or  the  State  school  funds."  One- 
fourth  the  expense  of  school  maintenance  in  this  State  would  be  $8,056,- 
901.27.  We  see  how  far  below  this  standard  is  Illinois  with  only  a 
three  per  cent  appropriation. 

This  appropriation,  of  course,  since  practice  has  made  it  a  fixed 
amount,  grows  relatively  smaller  year  by  year  as  the  total  expenditures 
for  school  purposes  increase.  The  school  reports  of  the  State  show  that 
in  1859  the  amount  derived  from  the  two  mill  tax  was  $763,331;  that  the 
amount  raised  by  district  tax  for  school  purposes  was  $1,201,895,  and 
tliat  the  entire  amount  expended  for  all  .=!chool  purposes  was  $2,171,495. 
A  little  calculation  will  show  that  at  that  time,  that  is  fifty  years  ago, 
the  State  appropriation  for  school  purposes  was  621/2  P^r  cent  of  the 
amount  raised  by  local  taxation,  and  34  per  cent  of  the  entire  expendi- 
ture for  schools.  Today,  as  was  shown,  it  is  less  than  three  per  cent  of 
the  total  expenditures  and  only  4.3  per  cent  of  the  amount  received  from 
district  taxes.  Surely  this  condition  could  not  bo  defended  by  anyone 
who  really  believes  in  the  principle  of  a  State  apjiropriation  for  the 
support  of  schools. 

What  is  this  jirinciple  to  wliich  reference  lias  just  been  made?  Why 
should  the  State  appropriate  any  amount  for  school  purposes?  Why 
should  not  the  entire  expenses  of  schools  be  borne  by  tlie  districts?     The 


264 

auswer  to  tlieso  que^itions  is  involved  in  the  very  idea  of  the  State.  A 
democratic  State  implies  a  body  of  people  svitficiently  homogeneous  with 
respect  to  customs,  conditions,  interests  and  needs,  to  undertake  to  pro- 
vide for  these  needs  through  common  effort,  that  is,  through  the  State 
government.  It  further  implies  that  the  interests  and  iieeds  of  the 
people  is  affected  by  that  of  some  of  the  people.  It  is,  therefore,  a 
denial  of  the  right  of  any  community  to  ado})t  the  })olicy  of  "go  as 
you  please"  in  any  matter  of  general  interest.  Education  is  a  matter  of 
general  interest,  consequently  the  principle  applies  with  })eculiar  force 
to  the  care  and  education  of  the  children  of  the  State.  The  welfare 
of  the  State  shall  receive  at  least  a  common  school  education.  This  prin- 
ciple is  recognized  in  the  Constitution  of  Illinois,  as  has  already  been 
pointed  out,  for  it  declares  that  "the  General  Assembly  shall  provide  a 
thorough  and  efficient  system  of  free  schools,  whereby  all  children  of  this 
State  may  receive  a  good  common  school  education." 

jSTow  it  is  impossible  for  some  localities  of  the  State,  without  outside 
assistance,  to  provide  such  a  system  of  schools  and  give  to  the  children 
of  those  Itocalities  the  kind  of  education  demanded  by  the  Constitution. 
Last  year  there  were  253  districts  in  the  State  which,  after  levying  the 
full  rate  of  taxation  permitted  by  law,  could  not  support  a  school  for  the 
term  required  by  law.  With  respect  to  these  districts  it  is  plainly  the 
duty  of  the  State  to  provide  tlieifi  with  the  assistance  necessary  to  enable 
them  to  conform  to  tlie  State's  requirements.  It  is  a  duty  which  the 
State  owes  primarily  to  itself.  These  districts,  however,  represent  an 
extreme  variation  from  a  "thorough  and  efficient  system  of  free  schools." 
Many  others  fall  short  of  it.  It,  therefore,  is  necessary  for  the  State  to 
make  a  large  appropriation  for  the  purpose  of  equalizing  the  school 
privileges  of  the  State,  and  for  the  purpose  of  stimulating  all  sections 
of  the  State  to  greater  efforts  towards  improving  their  schools.  The 
same  joint  meeting  of  educational  commissions  previously  referred  to 
resolved  "that  the  State  should  encourage  high  standards  of  efficiency  in 
all  grades  of  puldic  schools  by  granting  special  aid  to  all  rural,  gr  uk'd 
and  high  poIiodIs  which  reach  certain  standards  in  e(|ui])nu'nt  and  ti-ach- 
ino-  force."  ' 


26i 


SUBJECTS   NOT   THOROUGHLY    INVESTIGATED   BY    THE 

COMMISSION. 


There  are,  of  course,  many  subjects  of  great  educational  importance 
whicli  tlie  commission  lias  not  had  time  to  investigate  and  upon  which 
it  can  make  no  recommendation.  Chief  among  tnese,  perhaps,  is  the 
subject  of  industrial  and  vocational  training. 

it  is  felt  throughout  the  country  that  the  schools  of  today  are  not  prop- 
erly adjusted  to  the  industrial  conditions  which  prevail.  ^  The  feeling 
has  found  expression  in  a  variety  of  ways — in  a  flood  of  literature  on  in- 
dustrial education,  in  the  formation  of  societies  to  promote  instruction 
in  the  industrial  arts,  in  the  appointment  of  commissions  to  investigate 
the  subject  of  industrial  education,  and,  in  a  few  states,  in  legislation 
providing  for  the  teaching  of  agriculture  and  the  domestic  arts  in  the 
public  schools  and  for  the  establishment  of  separate  trade  schools. 

It  is  true  that  the  modern  school  too  often  retiects  the  scholastic  ideals 
which  prevailed  a  century  or  more  ago.  Since  the  industrial  revolution 
of  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  economic  conditions  have 
changed  more  rapidly  than  the  various  forms  and  methods  of  education. 
We  now  see  quite  clearly  that  the  education  which  was  fairly  well 
adapted  to  the  ideals  and  purposes  of  a  leisure  class  is  not  suited  to  the 
aims  and  purposes  of  a  democracy.  The  kind  of  (MJucation  needed  in  a 
free  state  is  that  which  considers  on  the  one  hand  the  socially  necessary 
labor  to  be  performed  in  forests  and  mines,  fields  and  factories,  offices 
and  studios,  and  on  the  other  hand  the  existence  in  the  minds  and 
bodies  of  the  youth  of  the  State  of  special  individual  aptitudes  for  the 
performance  of  this  labor,  which  aptitudes  it  should  bo  the  business  of 
the  schools  to  discover  and  develop.  The  cliildren  of  the  State  are  poten- 
tially 'farmers,  merchants,  mechanics,  engineers,  artists,  professional 
men,  etc.  Perhaps  the  greatest  educational  question  of  modern  times 
is,  how  may  the  public  school  system  be  organized  and  the  schools  con- 
ducted so  as  to  aid  in  the  discovery  of  the  s]iecial  talents  of  the  youth 
of  the  land,  develop  these  talents  in  the  highest  degree  possible  and 
turn  them  to  social  account.  This  is,  of  course,  largely  a  school  ques- 
tion, it  is  one  which  is  engaging  increasing  attention  on  the  part  of 
those  who  are  striving  to  improve  the  efficiency  of  the  schools.  The 
commission  regrets  exceedingly  that  it  lias  been  obliged  by  the  amount 
of  its  appropriation  and  for  want  of  time  to  forego  tlie  investigation  of 
a  question  which  in  importance  and  present  interest  stands  in  the  front 
rank. 


266 

Among  the  status  mIucIi  have  attempted  a  solutiou  of  this  problem 
through  legislation  are  Massachusetts,  New  York  and  Wisconsin. 

Wisconsin  provides  for  the  teaching  of  elementary  agriculture  in 
every  district  school,  and  for  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of 
county  schools  of  agriculture  and  domestic  economy.  It  also  empowers 
cities  to  establish  and  nuiiutain  trade  schools.  New  York  has  organized, 
under  its  education  department  a  special  division  of  trade  schools 
which  takes  up  the  organization  of  factory  and  trade  schools  with  local 
school  authorities,  commercial  or  labor  organizations,  or  any  citizen  who 
may  be  interested.  Such  schools  when  organized  become  a  part  of  the 
general  school  system,  and  subject  to  the  same  management,  but  the 
work  is  not  to  he  mingled  and  confused  with  the  work  of  other  schools. 
When  the  requirements  of  the  education  de])artment  as  to  rooms,  equip- 
ment and  qualifications  of  teachers  are  complied  with,  a  factory  or  trade 
school  receives  from  the  State  an  allotment  of  $500.00  and  an  additional 
$200.00  for  each  teacher  employed  after  the  first  one.  Massachusetts 
is  proceeding  under  the  direction  of  a  commission  on  industrial  educa- 
tion, appointed  in  1906.  This  commission  is  authorized  not  merely  to 
investigate  the  subject  of  industrial  education  but  to  establish,  conduct 
and  maintain  industrial  schools.  Several  of  such  schools  have  been  es- 
tablished. The  commission  was  created  to  serve  for  a  period  of  three 
years.  This  time  was  extended  in  1908  to  five  years.  For  the  years 
1900,  1907,  1908  and  1909  the  State  has  appropriated  for  the  use  of 
this  commission  the  sum  of  $100,323.41.  New  Jersey  has  appointed 
a  commission  to  investigate  the  subject  of  industrial  education  and  make 
a  report  to  the  next  Legislature,  and  the  same  has  been  done  in  Mary- 
land. Other  states  which  have  taken  some  steps  towards  the  introduc- 
tion of  industrial  education  are  Alabama,  Connecticut,  Georgia,  Vir- 
ginia, Arkansas,  Mississippi  and  Oklahoma.  The  constitution  of  Okla- 
homa contains  provisions  which  are  meant  to  create  a  definite  and  har- 
monious system  of  agricultural  and  industrial  education  for  that  State. 
With  this  object  in  view  it  enjoins  the  teaching  of  the  elementary  prin- 
ciples of  agriculture,  horticulture,  animal  husbandry,  stock  feeding, 
forestry,  the  building  of  country  roads,  domestic  science  and  the  ele- 
ments of  economics  in  all  the  public  schools  of  the  State. 

The  question  of  the  best  method  of  procedure  in  providing  for  in- 
dustrial education  in  the  public  schools  is  regarded  Ijy  tlie  commission 
as  an  extremely  important  one,  but  at  the  same  time  an  extremely  difficult 
one.  The  commission  makes  no  recommendation  upon  the  subject  for  the 
reason  that  it  has  not  had  time  to  enter  upon  that  kind  of  investigation 
which  would  be  necessary  to  insure  wise  suggestions  in  regard  to  legisla- 
tion. The  commission  regards  the  whole  question  of  industrial  and  voca- 
tional training  as  in  such  a  nebulous  condition  that  it  does  not  feel  that 
any  definite  recommendation  concerning  it  as  it  applies  to  the  public 
schools  of  the  State  caJi  be  made  without  a  painstaking  and  thorough  in- 
vestigation of  the  whole  subject.  The  time  at  the  disposal  of  the  commis- 
sion has  not  been  sufficient  to  enable  it  to  make  the  investigation  neces- 
sary for  such  a  report  as  would  be  required  as  the  basis  of  definite  rec- 
ommendations.    The  commission  is,  therefore,  of  the  opinion,  and  re- 


267 

spectfuUy  recommends  in  view  of  the  importance  of  the  subject,  that 
a  committee  consisting  of  suitable  persons  be  appointed  and  authorized 
by  the  State  to  visit  the  industrial  schools  of  this  country  and  other 
countries  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  subject  of  industrial  and  voca- 
tional training  in  all  its  phases  in  order  to  present  a  report  upon  it  to 
the  General  Assembly. 

The  subject  of  industrial  and  vocational  training  is  not  the  only  one, 
the  investigation  of  which  was  impossible  owing  to  the  limited  time  at 
tlie  disposal  of  the  commission.  Questions  like  the  following  are  fre- 
quently asked :  Why  have  you  not  taken  up  the  text  book  question  ? 
Wh}^  have  you  made  no  recommendation  concerning  temperance  legis- 
lation? Why  have  you  had  nothing  to  say  about  moral  instruction  in 
the  schools?  Why  do  you  not  recommend  a  law  concerning  school 
fraternities?  To  all  such  questions  the  commission  makes  the  follow- 
ing reply:  '^^e  agree  with  you  that  the  subject  you  urge  upon  us  ia 
important.  It  deserves  consideration,  but  we  have  laid  down  the  rule 
that  a  thorough  investigation  must  precede  the  formation  of  every 
recommendation  made  by  the  commission.  It  is  better  to  make  no  rec- 
ommendation at  all  than  to  make  one  not  sustained  by  facts  or  war- 
ranted by  experience.  The  subject  mentioned  is  one  concerning  which 
the  commission  has  not  had  sutficient  time  to  ascertain  the  facts  or  to 
study  the  experience.  We  have  done  the  best  we  could  with  a  few 
fundamentally  important  subjects.  We  have  considered  a  few  questions 
thoroughly.  We  have  no  misgivings  about  the  recommendations  wo 
have  made  concerning  them.  With  more  time  we  should  have  consid- 
ered other  subjects.  An  entire  year  would  "not  be  too  much  to  devote 
to  some  of  them.  The  Massachusetts  commission  will  spend  at  least 
five  years  on  the  subject  of  industrial  education  alone.  The  text  book 
question  is  a  difficult  question.  Practically  all  of  the  states  have  had 
more  or  less  experience  w4th  text  book  laws.  A  thorough  study  of  these 
laws  and  this  experience  should  precede  a  recommendation  concerning 
a  text  book  law  for  Illinois.  So  far  as  the  commission  is  concerned,  at 
least,  such  an  investigation  must  precede  any  recommendation  concern- 
ing it,  and  so  with  a  multitude  of  other  questions. 

Among  these  questions  which  the  commisison  would  like  to  have  con- 
sidered had  time  permitted  are  the  following:  Industrial  and  vocational 
training  in  their  relation  to  the  public  schools,  the  means  and  methods 
of  jiromoting  the  physical  welfare  of  school  children,  vacation  schools 
and  playgrounds,  the  teaching  of  agriculture,  household  economics  and 
domestic  science  in  the  public  schools,  the  consolidation  of  country 
schools,  the  improvement  of  the  law  in  relation  to  township  high  schools, 
the  text  book  question,  school  revenues,  the  requirements  for  admission 
to  colleges  and  the  granting  of  degrees,  the  kind  of  school  statistics 
which  it  is  most  profitable  to  collect,  the  compensation  of  township 
treasurers  and  the  auditing  of  their  reports,  a  minimum  wage  law  for 
teachers,  county  normal  schools  and  teachers'  training  classes,  city  school 
svstems,  religious  aud  temporaiue  instruction  in  the  schools,  and  many 
others. 


2(58 


FINANCIAL  STATEMENT. 


RECEIPTS. 

Appropriation  for  use  of  the  Educational  Commission . 

EXPENDITURES. 

F.  G.  Blair,  traveling  and  incidental  expenses 

R.  E.  Hieronj'mus,  traveling  and  incidental  expenses 

Alfred  Baylis,  traveling  and  incidental  expenses 

Edwin  G.  Cooley,  traveling  and  incidental  expenses 

A.  F.  Nightingale,  traveling  and  incidental  expenses  — 

Harry  Taylor,  traveling  and  incidental  expenses 

Francis  Cassilly,  traveling  and  incidental  expenses 

Woods  Howerth,  traveling  and  incidental  expenses 

Woods  Howerth .  salary  as  secretary 

Rose  Crump,  salary  as  stenographer 

Donald  L.  Morrill,  legal  advice 

L.  E.  Wheeler,  P.  M.,  for  stamps 

Underwood  Typewriter  Co 

Central  Union  Telephone  Co 

Clerical  work 

Labor 

Printing 

Expressage 

Total 


nn  70 

:;07  59 
231  82 

25  60 
20S  97 
292  77 

10  48 
815  98 
589  05 
165  00 
317  .S5 
645  00 

28  00 
2  50 

26  24 
20  00 
66  00 

141  97 


$10,000  00 


$10,000  CO 


2(JV 


INDEX. 


Page 

Amendments  to  the  School  Law :t 

Appropriations  for  schools  of  other  states 263 

Attendance  at  county  institutes 189 

Attendance  of  teachers  at  county  institutes 229 

Bill    to    create   Educational    Commission 4 

Bills  offered  by  Educational  Commission — 

Certification  of  teachers  in  Illinois 181 

Compensation   of  county   superintendent 70 

County   institutes 232 

Tq   create    State   Board   of   Education in 

Township  the  unit  or  school  organization    144 

Bulletins    of    the    Educational    Commission 6 

California   Board  of  Education 37 

Certificates — 

Power    to    grant — renew — suspend — revoke 158 

Recognition  of  normal  school,  college  and  university  graduates 159 

Certification   of   teachers    147 

Township  system    • 1 4  S 

Count  V    s  vstem     148 

State    system    149 

Advantages  of  a  uniform   State   system 165 

Experience    of    other    states 166 

Certificating  of  teachers  in  Illinois 170 

Certificating  of  teachers   in  Iowa 174 

Certificating  plan  offered  by  the  Educational   Commission 181 

Compensation  allowed  for  attending  county  institutes 189 

Conducting  teachers'   institutes — Illinois  plan 203 

Connecticut    Board    of    Education 35 

County  Board  of  Education,  advantages  of 95 

County    Boards    of   Education    in    the    United    States,    membership — term — com- 
pensation— qualification — powers    and    duties    of    members 87 

Cost    of    living    243 

County    institutes     186 

Attendance    at    189-220 

Character    of    instruction     227 

Compensation    for   attendance    189 

Directors    of    226 

Duration    of    227 

Financial   support  of    230 

Illinois   plan   for  conducting    203 

In    Illinois    204 

Joint    institutes     224 

Length    of    187 

IMethod    of    securing    Insti-uction ISS 

Method    of    securing    instructors 227 

IMethod    of   supporting    189 

Number    held    annually    186 

Organizing  and  conducting   .  . 224 

Purpose   and   value    of 214 

Time    held     187 

Time    of    holding    225 

Typical  system   199 

Plan  recommended  by  Educational  Commission 232 

County  institutes,  held  in  the  several  states 186 

County    superintendent — method    of    election — term — salary 58 

Compensation — plan   offered   by  the   Educational   Commission 70 

County  superintendents  in  the  several  states 55 

States  having  county  supervision    55 

Method    of    election     58 

Term    of    office     63 

Salaries     64 

Powers   and   duties    71 

Qualifications     79 

County  superintendency  in  Illinois    56. 

County  supervision — states  having  county  or  district  supervision 55 

County  system  the  unit  of  organization    114 

County    teachers'    institutes    1S6 

Discontinuance    and   abandonment   of   small   schools 145 


270 

luilc.v — Continued. 

Pa'-jh: 
District   system   of  organization — 

Advantages   of    106 

Objections    to    1  OS 

Kleotion   of  county  superintendents  in   general .")8 

Fees    for    examination    180 

Financial    statement    of   the    Educational    Commission 26S 

Index    26!) 

Illinois   plan   for   conducting  county   institutes 203 

Institute — county  teachers'    ■ 186 

Institute  plan  proposed  by  the  Educational  Commission 232 

Introduction     1 

Joint  institutes    224 

Legislation — Minimum    Salary    247 

Plan  proposed  by  the  Educational   Commission 257 

List  of  Illinois  superintendents  of  public  instruction 20 

Massachusetts  Board   of  Education    3  4 

Methods  of  electing  county  superintendents  in  general 58 

Minimum   salary   legislation    247 

Foreign  countries.  254  :  Indiana,  249  ;  Maryland.  252  ;  New  Jersey.  25]  : 
North  Dakota.  252;  Ohio,  253:  Pennsylvania.  250;  United  States, 
247  :   We.st  Virginia,   248. 

Objections    to    255 

Plan   proposed  by  the  Educational   Commission 257 

New  York  Board   of  Education 36 

New  York   plan   for  county  institutes 199 

Organizing  and   conducting   county   institutes 224 

Pennsylvania   plan    for   county   institutes '. 202 

Powers  and   duties   of  chief  school  officers   in    th^  several   states 22 

Qualification    of   the   county   superintendents    in   the    several    states 79 

Recognition    of    normal    school,    college    and    imiversitj-    graduates    in    granting 

certificates     159 

Recommendations   of  the   Educational   Commission 9 

Revision    of   the    school   law 9 

Amendments  to  the  school  law '.0 

Special    charters     11 

State  Board  of  Education 40 

Teachers'    institutes     232 

Township  unit   of  school   or.ganization 144 

r^niform    system    in    certificating   teachers 181 

Compensation   of  county   superintendents 70 

Reference.^ — 

Certification    of   teachers    185 

County    boards    of    Education    96 

County    institutes     233 

•  County   superintendents    in    the    several   states 84 

Minimum    salaries    258 

State   Board   of  Education    54 

State  superintendency  in  the  United  States 29 

Township  organization  in  the  several  states 135 

Resolution — Illinois    State    Teachers'    Association,    recommending    the    appoint- 
ment of  the  Educational  Commission    3 

Restoration    of '  the    two-mill    tax    260 

Revision  of  the  school  law   .* 9 

Salary  legislation 247 

Salaries  in  general    236 

Salaries  in  Illinois    2-''-'^ 

Salaries  of  county  superintendents  in  the  several  states >^  ' 

Salaries   of  teachers    '??•' 

In  general    23'^ 

Plan   proposed  by  the  Educational  Commission 25" 

School  appropriations  of  other  states 2fi  i 

Special  charters   11 

State    Boards   of  Education    in    the   United   States — term — compensation — mem- 
bership— powers  and  duties 31 

State  Board  of  Education  and  its  relation  to  the  Siipoiintendent   of  Public  In- 
struction in  the  several  states   4 ;) 

State  Board  of  Education — 

Advantages  of 5'i 

Objection    to    , 52 

State   Boards    of   Education,    recently   r^^commended .?8 

State  Board  of  Education,  plan  recommended  by  the  Educational  Commission.  40 

States  having  county  boards  of  education 87 

••Superintendents  of  Public  Instruction,  list  of 20 


8?1 

] ndf.r — ( 'oiitimicd. 

Pagk 
Superintendents    of    Public    Instruction    in    the    United    States — qualifications — 

election — term — salary 15 

Powers  and  duties  of   22 

State  superintendency  in  Illinois   18 

Subjects  not  thoroughly  Investigated  by  the  Educational  Commission 26:j 

Tables- 
Certificating  age  limit. in  the  several  states 147 

Certificating   systems    in    the    several    states 151 

Chief  school  officer — title   in  each   state  and  territory,   giving  year  present 

system    originated    20 

Chief    school    officers    in    the    United    States — manner    of    election — term — 

salary — important  duties 23 

Compensation  of  county  superintendents  in  the  several  states Go 

County   boards   of  education    in   the   United    States — number   of  members — 

term — compensation  and  powers  and  duties  of 89 

County   institutes   and   attendance    in   Illinois 212 

County  institutes  in  the  several  states 191 

County  superintendents   in   the   United   States — manner  of  election — term — 

salary — powers  and  duties    72 

Decrease  in  men  teachers    24o 

District  school  offlcers  in  the  United  States — title — number — method  of  ap- 
pointment or  election — term — powers  and  duties 102 

District   school   officers   under   county   organization — title — number — metliod 

of  appointment  or  election — term — powers  and  duties 115 

Income  from  the  two-mill  tax  and  State  school  appropriations 262 

Increase  of  population  and  valuation  of  property 260 

Increase  in  women  teachers  in  Illinois 245 

Minimum  school  term  required — school  months  and  allowance  of  holidays  in 

the  several  states 238 

Number  teachers  in  ungraded  schools 241 

Number  teachers  receiving  less  than   $40.00   per  month 241 

Qualification  of  county  superintendents  in   the  several  states 80 

Recognition   of  normal  school,  college  and  university  graduates  for  certifi- 
cation in  the  several  states    159 

State   school    appropriations   in   United    States    263 

State    Boards    of    Education — number    of    members — term — compensation — 

powers    and    duties    42 

Term — average  salary,  etc.,  of  teachers  in  the  several  states 237 

Town    or    township    school    officers    in    the    United    States — title — number — 

method   of  appointment   or  election — term — powers  and  duties  of 110 

Teachers'     salaries     235 

Causes    for   low    ". 244 

Effects    of   low    244 

In    Illinois    239 

Remedies     for     245 

Time  at  which  county  institutes  are  held 187 

Time  of  holding  county  institutes    225 

Township    organization    •. 117 

Advantages    of    118 

Objections    to 125 

Typical    system 112 

Township   organization   of  schools   in   Illinois *: 137 

Township  system — 

Unit  of  organization 109 

Opinion    of   experts— 

E.  T.  Fairchild.  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Kansas 129 

J.  H.  Ackerman,  .Superintendent  of  Pulflic  Instruction,  Oregon....  129 

W.  L.  Stockwell,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  N.  Dakota.  .  130 

H.  A.  Ustrud,   Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,   S.   Dakota...  130 

C.  G.   Rchultz,   Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,   Minnesota...  130 

R.   B.   Cousins,   Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,   Texas 130 

Nathan   C.   Schaeffer,    Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,    Penn- 
sylvania      130 

Mason  A.   Stone,   Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,   Vermont..  130 

M.  Bates  Stephens.  Superintendent   of   Public  Instruction,  ^laryland  .  131 

Geo.  H.  Martin.  Secretary  of  Board  of  Education.  ;Massachusetts.  .  131 

M.  P.  Shawkey,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  W.  Virginia.  131 

Payson   Smith,   Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.   Maine 131 

Walter    E.    Ranger,    Commissioner    of    Public  .Instruction,    Rhode 

Island    131 

Wm.  H.  Powell,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  Illinois 134 

Newton  Bateman,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Illinois.  .  .  134 

S.  M.  Etter.   Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.   Illinois 135' 

Jas.   P.   Slade,   Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.   Illinois 135 

Henry  Raali.    Superintendent  of  Pul)lic  Instruction,    Illinois 135 

Richard   Edwards.    Superintendent   of   Public   Instruction.    Illinois.  .  ISS' 

Alfred    Rayliss,   Superintendent   of  Public   Instruction.    Illinois 135 

System  recommended  by  the  Educational  Commission 144 


272 

J  lule.i- — Conrludi'd. 

Page 

Two-mill  tax.  restoration  of 260 

Typical  county  boards  of  education S3 

Typical    township    system    112 

Typical  systems  of  organizing  and  conducting  county  institutes 199 

Uniform  examination   for  certification   in  other  states 166 

Letters  of  county  superintendents  from  other  states 169 

Uniform   examinations  for   certificating  teachers   in   Illinois 163 

Plan    recommended   by   the    Educational    Commission 181 

Units   of  school  organization    98 

Community    system     ." 99 

District    system    99 

Advantages   of    106 

Objections    to    108 

Township    system    109 

Township  the  typical  unit   112 

County  system    114 

Plan  offered  by  the   Educational   Commission 144 

Wages    in    other   occupations    243 

West  Virginia   Board   of  Education    38 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


APR  2  i  1951 


Form  L-9-15m-7,';!l 


UNIVERSITY  of  CALIFORNIA 

AT 

LOS  ANGELES 

LIBRARY 


LB 
2809  Illinois. 
I2A52  Educational 
coJM^^ission- 
Pinal  report  > » . 


